Perceptions, attitudes, and outcomes of human-snake encounters: A retrospective study of an online discussion community in Nigeria
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Abstract. Babalola OJ, Jegede HO, Ogundro BN. 2020. Perceptions, attitudes, and outcomes of human-snake encounters: A retrospective study of an online discussion community in Nigeria. Asian J Ethnobiol 3: 1-9. The internet is a valuable tool for obtaining data needed to study factors that hinder snake conservation, especially in resource-limited settings. There is a lack of peer-reviewed research on the use of online communities to examine factors contributing to undesirable human-snake conflicts in Nigeria. A 12-month dataset (August 2016-July 2017) on human-snake encounters shared on Nairaland®- a popular online community forum in Nigeria - was retrieved and analyzed. Morphological characteristics observed in the snake photographs posted on the platform were used for species identification. A total of 203 human-snake encounters were recorded from 32/37 States of Nigeria. Men (n=133) reported more human-snake encounters than women (n =11), while ‘reporters’ of unspecified gender (n =59) accounted for the rest. Most postings were from the southern part of Nigeria, with the highest number of postings from Lagos State (n =34). Of the 24 snake species reported in the study, the African Rock Python was the most encountered. The months of May to July recorded the highest number of snake species reported by the respondents. ‘Fear’ and ‘food’ were the significant perceptions elicited by people during snake encounters. Human-snake conflicts resulted in snake deaths (n =182) irrespective of snake venomosity. Only 1.0% (n=2) of the snakes were protected from harm. This study revealed that data from online community forums are helpful for retrospective analyses of the perceptions and outcomes of human-snake encounters, the output of which policymakers and conservationists may find helpful.
2018-01-01
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References
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Ballouard JM, Provost G, Barré D, Bonnet X. 2012. Influence of a field trip on the attitude of schoolchildren toward unpopular organisms: an experience with snakes. Journal of Herpetology 46: 423–428.
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Carter ET, Attum O, Eads BC, Hoffman AS, Kingsbury BA. 2014. Reducing the potential for human–snake encounters in a recreational park. Human–Wildlife Interactions 8: 158–167.
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Heyd T, Mair C. 2014. From vernacular to the digital ethnolinguistic repertoire: the case of Nigerian Pidgin. Indexing Authenticity: Sociolinguistic Perspectives. Berlin/New York: de Gruyter.
Huettmann F. 2005. Databases and science-based management in the context of wildlife and habitat: toward a certified ISO standard for objective decision-making for the global community by using the internet. The Journal of Wildlife Management 69: 466–472.
Idowu MA, Morenikeji OA. 2015. Wild Fauna Conservation in Nigeria. Environment and Natural Resources Research, 5: 98.
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Lai PH, Shafer S. 2005. Marketing ecotourism through the Internet: an evaluation of selected ecolodges in Latin America and the Caribbean. Journal of Ecotourism 4: 143–160.
Liordos V, Kontsiotis VJ, Anastasiadou M, Karavasias E. 2017. Effects of attitudes and demography on public support for endangered species conservation. The science of the Total Environment 595: 25–34.
Liordos V, Kontsiotis VJ, Kokoris S, Pimenidou M. 2018. The two faces of Janus, or the dual mode of public attitudes towards snakes. The science of the Total Environment 621: 670–678.
Lucherini M, Merino MJ. 2008. Perceptions of human-carnivore conflicts in the high Andes of Argentina. Mountain Research and Development 28: 81–85.
Luiselli L. 2001. The ghost of a recent invasion in the reduced feeding rates of spitting cobras during the dry season in a rainforest region of tropical Africa? Acta Oecologica 22: 311–314.
Magle SB, Hunt VM, Vernon M, Crooks KR. 2012. Urban wildlife research: past, present, and future. Biological Conservation 155: 23–32.
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Miranda EB, Ribeiro RP Jr., Strüssmann C. 2016. The ecology of human-anaconda conflict: a study using internet videos. Tropical Conservation Science 9: 43–77.
Molesworth AM, Harrison R, David R, Theakston G, Lalloo DG. 2003. Geographic information system mapping of snakebite incidence in northern Ghana and Nigeria using environmental indicators: a preliminary study. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 97: 188–192.
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Prendergast JR, Quinn RM, Lawton JH. 1999. The gaps between theory and practice in selecting nature reserves. Conservation Biology 13: 484–492.
Prokop P, Özel M, U?ak M. 2009. Cross-cultural comparison of student attitudes toward snakes. Society & Animals 17: 224–240.
Prokop P, Fan?ovi?ová J. 2010. Perceived body condition is associated with fear of a large carnivore predator in humans. Annales Zoologici Fennici 47: 417–425.
Prokop P, Fan?ovi?ová J. 2013. Does colour matter? The influence of animal warning coloration on human emotions and willingness to protect them. Animal Conservation 16: 458–466.
Prokop P, and Randler C. 2018. Biological predispositions and individual differences in human attitudes toward animals. 447–466 In: Ethnozoology: Animals in our lives (1st Ed). Alves, R.R.N., and U.P. Albuquerque (eds). Academic Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.
Prokop P, Fan?ovi?ová J, Ku?erová A. 2018. Aposematic colouration does not explain fear of snakes in humans. Journal of Ethology 36: 35–41.
Purkayastha J, Das M, Sengupta S. 2011. Urban herpetofauna: a case study in Guwahati City of Assam, India. Herpetology notes 4: 195–202.
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Rim-Rukeh A, Irerhievwie G, Agbozu IE. 2013. Traditional beliefs and conservation of natural resources: evidence from selected communities in Delta State, Nigeria. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation 5: 426–432.
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Røskaft E, Bjerke T, Kaltenborn BP, Linnell JDC, Andersen R. 2003. Patterns of self-reported fear towards large carnivores among the Norwegian public. Evolution and Human Behavior 24: 184–198.
Sani UM, Jiya NM, Ibitoye PK, Ahmad MM. 2013. Presentation and outcome of snake bite among children in Sokoto, North-Western Nigeria. Sahel Medical Journal 16: 148.
Sasaki K, Sasaki Y, Fox S. 2010. Endangered traditional beliefs in Japan: influences on snake conservation. Herpetological Conservation and Biology 5: 474–485
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Veríssimo D, Vaughan G, Ridout M, Waterman C, Macmillan D, Smith RJ. 2017. Increased conservation marketing effort has major fundraising benefits for even the least popular species. Biological Conservation 211: 95–101.
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Alves RRN, Filho GAP. 2007. Commercialization and use of snakes in North and Northeastern Brazil: implications for conservation and management. Biodiversity and Conservation 16: 969–985.
Alves RR, Silva VN, Trovão DM, Oliveira JV, Mourão JS, Dias TL, Alves AG, Lucena RF, Barboza RR, Montenegro PF, Vieira WL. 2014. Students’ attitudes toward and knowledge about snakes in the semiarid region of Northeastern Brazil. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 10: 30.
Arts K, Van Der Wal R, Adams WM. 2015. Digital technology and the conservation of nature. Ambio 44: 661–673.
Ballouard JM, Provost G, Barré D, Bonnet X. 2012. Influence of a field trip on the attitude of schoolchildren toward unpopular organisms: an experience with snakes. Journal of Herpetology 46: 423–428.
Ballouard JM, Ajtic R, Balint H, Brito JC, Crnobrnja-Isailovic J, Desmonts D, Elmouden EH, Erdogan M, Feriche M, Pleguezuelos JM, Prokop P. 2013. Schoolchildren and one of the most unpopular animals: are they ready to protect snakes?. Anthrozoös 26: 93–109.
Beaupre SJ, Douglas LE. 2009. Snakes as indicators and monitors of ecosystem properties. Pp. 244-261 In: Snakes, Ecology and Conservation. Seigel RA, Mullin SJ (eds). Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, USA.
Bitanyi S, Nesje M, Kusiluka LJ, Chenyambuga SW, Kaltenborn BP. 2012. Awareness and perceptions of local people about wildlife hunting in western Serengeti communities. Tropical Conservation Science 5: 208–224.
Bonnet X, Lecq S, Lassay JL, Ballouard JM, Barbraud C, Souchet J, Mullin SJ, Provost G. 2016. Forest management bolsters native snake populations in urban parks. Biological Conservation 193: 1–8.
Carrete M, Grande JM, Tella JL, Sánchez-Zapata JA, Donázar JA, Díaz-Delgado R, Romo A. 2007. Habitat, human pressure, and social behaviour: partialling out factors affecting large-scale territory extinction in an endangered vulture. Biological Conservation 136: 143–154.
Carter ET, Attum O, Eads BC, Hoffman AS, Kingsbury BA. 2014. Reducing the potential for human–snake encounters in a recreational park. Human–Wildlife Interactions 8: 158–167.
Chiluwa I, Odebunmi A. 2016. On terrorist attacks in Nigeria: stance and engagement in conversations on Nairaland. Communication and the Public 1: 91–109.
Conant R, Collins JT. 1998. A field guide to reptiles & amphibians: eastern and central North America. Vol. 12. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 12: 11–12.
Conway WG. 2011. Buying time for wild animals with zoos. Zoo Biology 30: 1–8.
Cooper C, Dickinson J, Phillips T, Bonney R. 2007. Citizen science as a tool for conservation in residential ecosystems. Ecology and Society 12.
Corbett SW, Anderson B, Nelson B, Bush S, Hayes WK, Cardwell MD. 2005. Most lay people can correctly identify indigenous venomous snakes. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine 23: 759–762.
Czech B, Krausman PR, Borkhataria R. 1998. Social construction, political power, and the allocation of benefits to endangered species. Conservation Biology 12: 1103–1112.
De Pinho JR, Grilo C, Boone RB, Galvin KA, Snodgrass JG. 2014. Influence of aesthetic appreciation of wildlife species on attitudes towards their conservation in Kenyan agropastoralist communities. PloS ONE 9: 1–10.
Duggan M, Brenner J. 2013. The demographics of social media users, 2012. (Vol.14). Washington, DC: Pew Research Center's Internet & American Life Project.
Escasa M, Gray PB, Patton JQ. 2010. Male traits associated with attractiveness in Conambo, Ecuador. Evolution and Human Behavior 31: 193–200.
Eysenbach G, Till JE. 2001. Ethical issues in qualitative research on internet communities. British Medical Journal 323: 1103–1105.
Gunther E, Jeremy W. 2002. Using the Internet for surveys and health research. Journal of Medical Internet Research 4: E13.
Gusset M, Dick G. 2010. ‘Building a Future for Wildlife’? Evaluating the contribution of the world zoo and aquarium community to in situ conservation. International Zoo Yearbook 44: 83–191.
Gusset M, Swarner MJ, Mponwane L, Keletile K, Mcnutt JW. 2009. Human-wildlife conflict in northern Botswana: livestock predation by endangered African wild dog Lycaon pictus and other carnivores. Oryx 43: 67–72.
Hargittai E. 2007. Whose space? Differences among users and non-users of social network sites. Journal of computer-mediated communication 13: 276–297.
Hargittai E. 2010. Digital na (t) lives? Variation in internet skills and uses among members of the "net generation". Sociological Inquiry 80: 92–113.
Harriman S, Patel J. 2014. The ethics and editorial challenges of internet-based research. BMC Medicine 12: 124.
Herrel A, Van Der Meijden A. 2014. An analysis of the live reptile and amphibian trade in the USA compared to the global trade in endangered species. The Herpetological Journal 24: 103–110.
Herron M, Sinclair M, Kernohan WG, Stockdale J. 2011. Ethical issues in undertaking internet research of user-generated content: a review of the literature. Evidence Based Midwifery 9: 9–15.
Heyd T, Mair C. 2014. From vernacular to the digital ethnolinguistic repertoire: the case of Nigerian Pidgin. Indexing Authenticity: Sociolinguistic Perspectives. Berlin/New York: de Gruyter.
Huettmann F. 2005. Databases and science-based management in the context of wildlife and habitat: toward a certified ISO standard for objective decision-making for the global community by using the internet. The Journal of Wildlife Management 69: 466–472.
Idowu MA, Morenikeji OA. 2015. Wild Fauna Conservation in Nigeria. Environment and Natural Resources Research, 5: 98.
Inskip C, Zimmermann A. 2009. Human-felid conflict: a review of patterns and priorities worldwide. Oryx, 43: 18–34.
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 2013. Year of the Snake: an online reference. https://www.iucn.org/content/year-snake.
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 2018. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2018. https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?page=2.
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 2019. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Version 2019-1. https://www.iucnredlist.org/.
Jachowski DS, Millspaugh JJ, Angermeier PL, Slotow R. 2016. Reintroduction of Fish and Wildlife Populations. University of California Press, Berkeley, California, USA.
Kinnaird MF, Sanderson EW, O'Brien TG, Wibisono HT, Woolmer G. 2003. Deforestation trends in a tropical landscape and implications for endangered large mammals. Conservation Biology 17: 245–257.
Lai PH, Shafer S. 2005. Marketing ecotourism through the Internet: an evaluation of selected ecolodges in Latin America and the Caribbean. Journal of Ecotourism 4: 143–160.
Liordos V, Kontsiotis VJ, Anastasiadou M, Karavasias E. 2017. Effects of attitudes and demography on public support for endangered species conservation. The science of the Total Environment 595: 25–34.
Liordos V, Kontsiotis VJ, Kokoris S, Pimenidou M. 2018. The two faces of Janus, or the dual mode of public attitudes towards snakes. The science of the Total Environment 621: 670–678.
Lucherini M, Merino MJ. 2008. Perceptions of human-carnivore conflicts in the high Andes of Argentina. Mountain Research and Development 28: 81–85.
Luiselli L. 2001. The ghost of a recent invasion in the reduced feeding rates of spitting cobras during the dry season in a rainforest region of tropical Africa? Acta Oecologica 22: 311–314.
Magle SB, Hunt VM, Vernon M, Crooks KR. 2012. Urban wildlife research: past, present, and future. Biological Conservation 155: 23–32.
Mallon DP, Hoffmann M, Grainger MJ, Hibert F, Van Vliet N, Mcgowan PJK. 2015. An IUCN situation analysis of terrestrial and freshwater fauna in West and Central Africa. Occasional paper of the IUCN species survival commission, 54.
Marešová J, Frynta D. 2008. Noah's Ark is full of common species attractive to humans: The case of boid snakes in zoos. Ecological Economics, 64: 554–558.
Miranda EB, Ribeiro RP Jr., Strüssmann C. 2016. The ecology of human-anaconda conflict: a study using internet videos. Tropical Conservation Science 9: 43–77.
Molesworth AM, Harrison R, David R, Theakston G, Lalloo DG. 2003. Geographic information system mapping of snakebite incidence in northern Ghana and Nigeria using environmental indicators: a preliminary study. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 97: 188–192.
Morgan JM, Gramann JH. 1989. Predicting the effectiveness of wildlife education programs: A study of students' attitudes and knowledge toward snakes. Wildlife Society Bulletin 17: 501–509.
Pandey DP, Pandey GS, Devkota K, Goode M. 2016. Public perceptions of snakes and snakebite management: implications for conservation and human health in southern Nepal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 12: 22.
Pinheiro LT, Rodrigues JFM, Borges-Nojosa DM. 2016. Formal education, previous interaction and perception influence the attitudes of people toward the conservation of snakes in a large urban center of northeastern Brazil. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 12: 25.
Prendergast JR, Quinn RM, Lawton JH. 1999. The gaps between theory and practice in selecting nature reserves. Conservation Biology 13: 484–492.
Prokop P, Özel M, U?ak M. 2009. Cross-cultural comparison of student attitudes toward snakes. Society & Animals 17: 224–240.
Prokop P, Fan?ovi?ová J. 2010. Perceived body condition is associated with fear of a large carnivore predator in humans. Annales Zoologici Fennici 47: 417–425.
Prokop P, Fan?ovi?ová J. 2013. Does colour matter? The influence of animal warning coloration on human emotions and willingness to protect them. Animal Conservation 16: 458–466.
Prokop P, and Randler C. 2018. Biological predispositions and individual differences in human attitudes toward animals. 447–466 In: Ethnozoology: Animals in our lives (1st Ed). Alves, R.R.N., and U.P. Albuquerque (eds). Academic Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.
Prokop P, Fan?ovi?ová J, Ku?erová A. 2018. Aposematic colouration does not explain fear of snakes in humans. Journal of Ethology 36: 35–41.
Purkayastha J, Das M, Sengupta S. 2011. Urban herpetofauna: a case study in Guwahati City of Assam, India. Herpetology notes 4: 195–202.
Pyron RA, Burbrink FT. 2012. Extinction, ecological opportunity, and the origins of global snake diversity. Evolution 66: 163–178.
Pyron RA, Burbrink FT, Wiens JJ. 2013. A phylogeny and revised classification of Squamata, including 4161 species of lizards and snakes. BMC Evolutionary Biology 13: 93.
Rastogi A, Hickey GM, Badola R, Hussain SA. 2013. Diverging viewpoints on tiger conservation: a Q-method study and survey of conservation professionals in India. Biological Conservation 161: 182–192.
Reading CJ, Luiselli LM, Akani GC, Bonnet X, Amori G, Ballouard JM, Filippi E, Naulleau G, Pearson D, Rugiero L. 2010. Are snake populations in widespread decline? Biology Letters 6: 777–780.
Rim-Rukeh A, Irerhievwie G, Agbozu IE. 2013. Traditional beliefs and conservation of natural resources: evidence from selected communities in Delta State, Nigeria. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation 5: 426–432.
Root TL, Price JT, Hall KR, Schneider SH, Rosenzweig C, Pounds JA. 2003. Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants. Nature 421: 57.
Røskaft E, Bjerke T, Kaltenborn BP, Linnell JDC, Andersen R. 2003. Patterns of self-reported fear towards large carnivores among the Norwegian public. Evolution and Human Behavior 24: 184–198.
Sani UM, Jiya NM, Ibitoye PK, Ahmad MM. 2013. Presentation and outcome of snake bite among children in Sokoto, North-Western Nigeria. Sahel Medical Journal 16: 148.
Sasaki K, Sasaki Y, Fox S. 2010. Endangered traditional beliefs in Japan: influences on snake conservation. Herpetological Conservation and Biology 5: 474–485
Seigel RA, Mullin SJ. 2009. Snake conservation, present and future. Pp 281–290 In: Snakes, Ecology and Conservation. Seigel RA, Mullin SJ (eds). Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, USA.
Shine R, Bonnet X. 2000. Snakes: a new ‘model organism’ in ecological research? Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15: 221–222.
Snyder, NF, Derrickson SR, Beissinger SR, Wiley JW, Smith TB, Toone WD, Miller B. 1996. Limitations of captive breeding in endangered species recovery. Conservation Biology 10: 338–348.
Soewu DA. 2008. Wild animals in ethnozoological practices among the Yorubas of southwestern Nigeria and the implications for biodiversity conservation. African Journal of Agricultural Research 3: 421–427.
Treves A., and K.U. Karanth. 2003. Human?carnivore conflict and perspectives on carnivore management worldwide. Conservation Biology 17:1491–1499.
Trouwborst A, Blackmore A, Boitani L, Bowman M, Caddell R, Chapron G, Cliquet A, Couzens E, Epstein Y, Fernández-Galiano E, Fleurke FM. 2017. International wildlife law: understanding and enhancing its role in conservation. BioScience 67: 784–790.
Uetz P, Hallermann J, Hosek J. 2017. The Reptile Database, 2017. http://www.reptile-database.org/.
Veríssimo D, Vaughan G, Ridout M, Waterman C, Macmillan D, Smith RJ. 2017. Increased conservation marketing effort has major fundraising benefits for even the least popular species. Biological Conservation 211: 95–101.
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