An integrative taxonomic reassessment of Kandelia candel (Rhizophoraceae), a true mangrove of Thailand
Article Sidebar
Abstract Views: 290
File Views: 226
Main Article Content
Abstract
Abstract. Ngernsaengsaruay C, Uthairatsamee S, Mianmit N, Pravinvongvuthi T, Samart C. 2026. An integrative taxonomic reassessment of Kandelia candel (Rhizophoraceae), a true mangrove of Thailand. Biodiversitas 27 (2): d270210. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d270210. Kandelia candel (Rhizophoraceae, Rhizophoreae) is revised for Thailand based on an integrative taxonomic reassessment combining morphology, leaf anatomy, pollen morphology, and conservation assessment. This study aims to clarify the taxonomic identity, national distribution, and conservation status of the species through examinations of herbarium specimens and field collections. A detailed morphological description and illustrations are provided, together with notes on distribution, habitat, ecology, phenology, etymology, vernacular names, uses, and specimens examined. Leaf anatomical characters were investigated using light microscopy, pollen morphology was examined following standard palynological methods, and a preliminary conservation assessment was conducted in accordance with the IUCN Red List categories and criteria. In Thailand, K. candel occurs as a shrub or small tree and is rare, being confined to the south-eastern and peninsular regions. Leaves are bifacial and composed of five principal tissue layers, exhibiting anatomical adaptations typical of mangrove species, including thick cuticles, sunken stomata restricted to the abaxial surface, large hypodermal cells, and cork warts. Pollen grains are monads, isopolar, tricolporate, suboblate to subprolate or oblate-spheroidal in shape, small to medium in size, and characterized by perforate exine sculpturing. Although the species has a wide global Extent of Occurrence (EOO: 9,344,077.01 km²) and is assessed as Least Concern (LC) at the global level, its distribution in Thailand is highly restricted, with a small national EOO (52,021.25 km²) and Area of Occupancy (AOO: 40 km²). This national rarity has important implications for mangrove management and conservation planning, as locally limited populations may be more sensitive to habitat loss and coastal disturbance. This study represents the first integrative taxonomic revision of K. candel for Thailand and provides a baseline dataset for future national conservation assessments and studies on mangrove biodiversity.
Article Details
Issue
Section
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
References
Bachman S, Moat J, Hill AW, de Torre J, Scott B. 2011. Supporting red list threat assessments with GeoCAT: Geospatial conservation assessment tool. Zookeys 150: 117-126. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.150.2109.
Chiang TY, Chiang YC, Chen YJ, Chou CH, Havanond S, Hong TN, Huang S. 2001. Phylogeography of Kandelia candel in East Asiatic mangroves based on nucleotide variation of chloroplast and mitochondrial DNAs. Mol Ecol 10 (11): 2697-2710. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0962-1083.2001.01399.x.
Dalimunthe SH, Damayanto IPGP, Martiansyah I, Tihurua EF, Rahmawati K, Fastanti FS, Muhaimin M. 2023. Pollen micromorphology of mangrove species in South Sumatera coastal area, Indonesia. Sains Malays 52 (9): 2499-2511. http://doi.org/10.17576/jsm-2023-5209-03.
Das AB, Basak UC, Das P. 1995. Karyotype diversity and genomic variability in some Indian tree mangroves. Caryologia 48 (3-4): 319-328. http://doi.org/10.1080/00087114.1995.10797341.
Duke N, Kathiresan K, Salmo III SG, Fernando ES, Peras JR, Sukardjo S, Miyagi T. 2010. Kandelia candel. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2010. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/178857/7629021 (accessed on 23 October 2025).
Erdtman G. 1945. Pollen Morphology and Plant Taxonomy V. on the Occurrence of Tetrads and Dyads. Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift Utgifven af Svenska Botaniska Foreningen 39: 286-297.
Erdtman G. 1952. Pollen Morphology and Plant Taxonomy: Angiosperms V. 1. Almquist and Wiksell, Stockholm, Sweden. https://doi.org/10.1080/11035895209453507.
Giang LH, Geada GL, Hong PN, Tuan MS, Lien NTH, Ikeda S, Harada K. 2006. Genetic variation of two mangrove species in Kandelia (Rhizophoraceae) in Vietnam and surrounding area revealed by microsatellite markers. Intl J Plant Sci 167 (2): 291-298. https://doi.org/10.1086/499611.
Henslow G. 1878. Rhizophoreae. In: Hooker JD (eds). The Flora of British India V. 2. L. Reeve & Co., London.
Hou D. 1958. Rhizophoraceae. In: van Steenis CGGJ (eds). Flora Malesiana Series 1, V. 5. Noordhofef-Kolff N. V., Jakarta.
Hou D. 1970. Rhizophoraceae. In: Smitinand T, Larsen K (eds). Flora of Thailand V. 2. The Forest Herbarium, Bangkok.
Huang S, Chen YC. 2000. Patterns of genetic variation of Kandelia candel among populations around the South China Sea. In: Chiang TY, Hsu TW (eds). Wetland Biodiversity: Proceedings of Symposium of Biodiversity in Wetlands. Taiwan Endemic Species Research Institute, Nantou, Taiwan.
International Plant Names Index (IPNI). 2025. International Plant Names Index. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries, and Australian National Herbarium. https://www.ipni.org/ (accessed on 23 October 2025).
IUCN Standards and Petitions Committee. 2024. Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria Version 16. Standards and Petitions Committee. https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/redlistguidelines (accessed on 23 October 2025).
Johansen DA. 1940. Plant Microtechnique. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Juairiah L. 2014. Stomatal characteristics study on some revegetation plants of the post tin-mining land in Bangka. Widyariset 17 (2): 213-218. [Indonesian]
Kermanee P. 2008. Techniques of Plant Tissue. Kasetsart University, Bangkok. [Thai]
King G. 1897. Materials for A Flora of The Malayan Peninsula (Rhizophoreae). J Asia Soc Bengal 2 (1): 311-326.
Kirtikar KR, Basu BD. 1935. Indian Medicinal Plants V. 2. Lalit Mohan Basu, India.
Linnaeus C. 1753. Species Plantarum V. 1. Impensis Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae.
Malabrigo Jr PL, Eduarte GT, Malabrigo LD, Coracero EE. 2021. Kandelia candel (L.) Druce, a true native species in the Philippines. Philipp J Sci 150 (5): 1121-1129. https://doi.org/10.56899/150.05.24.
Manohar SM. 2024. Botanical, phytochemical, and pharmacological profile of the mangrove plant Kandelia candel (L.) Druce. J Med Pharm Allied Sci 13 (5) 6633: 6770-6779. https://doi.org/10.55522/jmpas.V13I5.6633.
Mao L, Batten DJ, Fujiki T, Li Z, Dai L, Weng C. 2012. Key to mangrove pollen and spores of southern China: An aid to palynological interpretation of Quaternary deposits in the South China Sea. Rev Palaeobot Palynol 176-177: 41-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2012.03.004.
Maxwell GS. 1995. Ecogeographic Variation in Kandelia candel from Brunei, Hong Kong, and Thailand. In: Wong YS, Tam NFY (eds). Asia-Pacific Symposium on Mangrove Ecosystems. Developments in Hydrobiology, vol 106. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0289-6_8.
Metcalfe CR, Chalk L. 1957. Anatomy of the Dicotyledons: Leaves, Stem, and Wood in Relation to Taxonomy, with Notes on Economic Uses V. 1. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Naskar K, Mandal R. 1999. Ecology and Biodiversity of Indian Mangroves. Daya Publishing House, Delhi.
Ngernsaengsaruay C, Chanton P, Leksungnoen N, Uthairatsamee S, Mianmit N. 2024. A taxonomic revision of Rhizophora L. (Rhizophoraceae) in Thailand. PeerJ 12: e17460. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.17460.
Ngernsaengsaruay C, Mianmit N, Kamsanor S, Pothitan R, Jintana V, Jintana N, Chanton P, Sukantatul A, Khade J. 2025. Rhizophora stylosa (Rhizophoraceae) newly recorded from Thailand: lectotypification, leaf anatomy, and pollen morphology. PhytoKeys 259: 1-25. https://doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.259.157847.
Pattanaik C, Reddy CS, Dhal NK, Das R. 2008. Utilisation of mangrove forests in Bhitarkanika wildlife sanctuary, Orissa. Indian J Tradit Knowl 7 (4): 59-603.
Plants of the World Online (POWO). 2025. Plants of the World Online. The Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/ (accessed on 23 October 2025).
Punt W, Hoen PP, Blackmore S, Nilsson S, Thomas AL. 2007. Glossary of pollen and spore terminology. Rev Palaeobot Palynol 143 (1-2): 1-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2006.06.008.
Schwarzbach AE. 2014. Rhizophoraceae. In: Kubitzki K (eds). The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants V. 11. Springer-Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg, 283-295. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39417-1_23.
Sheue CR, Chen YJ, Yang YP. 2012. Stipules and colleters of the mangrove Rhizophoraceae: Morphology, structure, and comparative significance. Bot Stud 53 (2): 243-254.
Sheue CR, Liu HY, Yang YP. 2003a. Morphology on stipules and leaves of the mangrove genus Kandelia (Rhizophoraceae). Taiwania 48 (4): 248-258. https://doi.org/10.6165/tai.2003.48(4).248.
Sheue CR, Liu HY, Yong JWH. 2003b. Kandelia obovata (Rhizophoraceae), a new mangrove species from Eastern Asia. TAXON 52 (2): 287-294. https://doi.org/10.2307/3647398.
Sheue CR. 2003. The Comparative Morphology and Anatomy of the Eastern Mangrove Rhizophoraceae. [Ph.D. Dissertation]. National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
Simpson MG. 2010. Plant Systematics 2nd edn. Elsevier Academic Press, Burlington/San Diego. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374380-0.50001-4.
Surya S, Hari N. 2017 Pollen morphology of selected true mangrove species in Kerala. Intl J Res Pharm Pharm Sci 2 (3): 11-14.
Thiers B (2025) [continuously updated] Index Herbariorum: A Global Directory of Public Herbaria and Associated Staff. New York Botanical Garden’s Virtual Herbarium. https://sweetgum.nybg.org/science/ih/
Tomlinson PB. 1986. The Botany of Mangroves. 1st edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Tomlinson PB. 2016. The Botany of Mangroves. 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
van Rheede HA. 1686. Hortus Indicus Malabaricus V. 6. Henrici & Viduae Theodori Boom, Amsterdam [Amstelaedami].
Vu VC. 1965. Rhizophoraceae. Flore du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam Fasc. 4. Muséum National D'histoire Naturelle, Paris. [French]
World Flora Online (WFO). 2025. World Flora Online. https://www.worldfloraonline.org (accessed on 23 October 2025).