Physicochemical and metabolite profiling of three Capsicum species from West Sumatra, Indonesia
Article Sidebar
Abstract Views: 232
File Views: 168
Main Article Content
Abstract
Abstract. Yenrina R, Weliardi, Putra AR, Humaira SS, Anggraini T. 2026. Physicochemical and metabolite profiling of three Capsicum species from West Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 27 (4): d270405. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d270405. Fresh chili quality and bioactivity vary by species and growing conditions, but integrated data for West Sumatra remain limited. This study provides the first integrated physicochemical-metabolite characterization of three Capsicum species commonly cultivated and marketed in the region: Red Curly chili (Capsicum annuum; RC), Bird's Eye chili (Capsicum frutescens; BE), and Ghost Pepper (Capsicum chinense; GP). Fruit morphometrics, surface color (CIELAB), proximate composition, and antioxidant activity (DPPH assay at 1000 ppm) were evaluated using a descriptive analytical approach, and metabolite profiling was performed using untargeted LC-MS/MS QTOF with putative identification based on MS/MS spectral library matching (MSI level 2). These three species exhibit distinct morphological and color parameters, with RC exhibiting the highest red intensity (a* and chroma) and BE the lowest lightness (L*). All samples exhibited high moisture content (78.70-82.46%) and high carbohydrate content, with low fat and protein levels. Strong antioxidant activity was detected across species (83.38-86.67%). Untargeted LC-MS/MS analysis of single composite samples per species identified 147 putative metabolites (MSI level 2) (73 in RC, 78 in BE, and 70 in GP), and qualitative differences in metabolite detection patterns were observed among species. Glycosylated terpenoid-related compounds were detected in BE, abietic-type diterpenoids were detected in GP, and RC showed the presence of apocarotenoid-related compounds such as β-ionone together with diverse diterpenoid annotations. As analyses were based on single composite samples and putative metabolite annotation (MSI level 2), results should be interpreted as qualitative trends rather than statistically validated differences. Overall, this study establishes a region-specific integrated physicochemical-metabolite profile of Capsicum species from West Sumatra, providing a structured reference for future quantitative metabolomics, functional evaluation, and cultivar differentiation.
Article Details
Issue
Section
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
References
Ab Rahman MH, Jusoh YMM, Hashim Z. 2024. Total phenolic, total flavonoid, and antioxidant activity of Capsicum annuum seed and pericarp extracts. J Bioprocess Biomass Technol 3 (2): 107-111. https://doi.org/10.11113/bioprocessing.v3n2.62.
Ajuru MG, Williams LF, Ajuru G. 2017. Qualitative and quantitative phytochemical screening of some plants used in ethnomedicine in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. J Food Nutr Sci 5 (5): 198-205. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jfns.20170505.16.
Alam MA, Sarker MZI, Ghafoor K, Happy RA, Ferdosh S. 2017. Bioactive compounds and extraction techniques. In: Nguyen VT (eds). Recovering Bioactive Compounds from Agricultural Wastes. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119168850.ch2.
Alonso-Villegas R, González-Amaro RM, Figueroa-Hernández CY, Rodríguez-Buenfil IM. 2023. The genus Capsicum: A review of bioactive properties of its polyphenolic and capsaicinoid composition. Molecules 28 (10): 4239. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28104239.
Anaya-Esparza LM, Villagrán-de la Mora Z, Vázquez-Paulino O, Ascencio F, Villarruel-López A. 2021. Bell peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) losses and wastes: Source for food and pharmaceutical applications. Molecules 26 (17): 5341. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26175341.
Anggraini T, Anwar A, Hervani D, Suhendra D, Wisnubroto MP, Noflindawati N, Nasution IH. 2025. Quality of sugar palm sap (Arenga pinnata) from various production centers in West Sumatra, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 26 (2): 859-866. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d260234.
Antonio AS, Wiedemann LSM, Junior VFV. 2018. The genus Capsicum: A phytochemical review of bioactive secondary metabolites. RSC Adv 8 (45): 25767-25784. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ra02067a.
AOAC. 2019. Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Rockville, Maryland, USA.
Aryani RD, Basuki IF, Budisantoso I, Widyastuti A. 2022. Pengaruh ketinggian tempat terhadap pertumbuhan dan hasil tanam cabai rawit (Capsicum frutescens L.). Agriprima J Appl Agric Sci 6 (2): 202-211. https://doi.org/10.25047/agriprima.v6i2.485. [Indonesian]
Azlan A, Sultana S, Huei CS, Razman MR. 2022. Antioxidant, anti-obesity, nutritional, and other beneficial effects of different chili peppers: A review. Molecules 27 (3): 898. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27030898.
Berry HM, Lai F, Kende A, Rickett DV, Baxter CJ, Enfissi EMA, Fraser PD. 2021. Understanding colour retention in red chilli pepper fruit using a metabolite profiling approach. Food Chem: Mol Sci 2: 100013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochms.2021.100013.
Butt M, Sattar A, Abbas T, Hussain R, Ijaz M, Sher A, Shahzad U, Ullah S, Brestic M, Zivcak M, Gasparovic K, Aljuaid BS, El-Shehawi AM, Zuan ATK. 2021. Morpho-physiological and biochemical attributes of chili (Capsicum annuum L.) genotypes grown under varying salinity levels. PLoS One 16 (11): e0257893. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257893.
Cervantes-Hernández F, Ochoa-Alejo N, Martínez O, Ordaz-Ortiz JJ. 2022. Metabolomic analysis identifies differences between wild and domesticated chili pepper fruits during development (Capsicum annuum L.). Front Plant Sci 13: 893055. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.893055.
Chávez-Mendoza C, Sánchez E, Muñoz-Márquez E, Sida-Arreola JP, Flores-Córdova MA. 2015. Bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity in different grafted varieties of bell pepper. Antioxidants 4 (2): 427-446. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox4020427.
Clark R, Lee S-H. 2016. Anticancer properties of capsaicin against human cancer. Anticancer Res 36 (3): 837-843.
Dahiru TA, Charles OEV, Cyril O, Saidu MM. 2018. Comparative evaluation of the phytochemical, proximate, and mineral quality of Nigerian Capsicum annuum exposed to open and solar drying. GSC Biol Pharm Sci 5 (2): 139-144. https://doi.org/10.30574/gscbps.2018.5.2.0128.
de Jesus Luna-Ruiz J, Nabhan GP, Aguilar-Meléndez A. 2018. Shifts in plant chemical defenses of chile pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) due to domestication in Mesoamerica. Front Ecol Evol 6: 48. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2018.00048.
Del Rocio Moreno-Ramírez Y, Martínez-Ávila GCG, González-Hernández VA, Castro-López C, Torres-Castillo JA. 2018. Free radical-scavenging capacities, phenolics, and capsaicinoids in wild piquin chili (Capsicum annuum var. glabriusculum). Molecules 23 (10): 2655. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23102655.
Devraj M, Kambham MR, Ponnam N, Kodthalu SS. 2025. Anthocyanin pigment diversity and stability analysis in chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) accessions. Euphytica 221: 38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10681-025-03484-w.
Don ORA, Ahi PA, Gnanguy SN, Kouame LP. 2019. Physical, nutritional characteristics and bioavailability of a chili pepper cultivar (Capsicum annuum) grown in eastern Côte d'Ivoire. Intl J Food Sci Nutr Eng 9 (3): 49-56. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.food.20190903.01.
Duranova H, Valkova V, Gabriny L. 2022. Chili peppers (Capsicum spp.): The spice not only for cuisine purposes: An update on current knowledge. Phytochem Rev 21: 1379-1413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11101-021-09789-7.
Dutta K, Nath R. 2023. Application of colorimetry in food industries. In: Samanta AK (eds). Advances in Colorimetry. IntechOpen, London, United Kingdom. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112099.
Echave J, Pereira AG, Carpena M, Prieto MÁ, Simal-Gandara J. 2020. Capsicum seeds as a source of bioactive compounds: Biological properties, extraction systems, and industrial application. In: Dekebo A (eds). Capsicum. IntechOpen, London, United Kingdom. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91785.
Ferniah RS, Pujiyanto S. 2017. Biodiversity of Indonesian red chilli (Capsicum annuum var. longum) based on morphological characters. Adv Sci Lett 23 (7): 6462-6464. https://doi.org/10.1166/asl.2017.9654.
Finger FL, Pereira GM. 2016. Physiology and post-harvest of pepper fruits. In: Production and Breeding of Chilli Peppers (Capsicum spp.). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-06532-8_2.
Gidado MJ, Gunny AAN, Gopinath SCB, Ali A, Wongs-Aree C, Salleh NHM. 2024. Challenges of post-harvest water loss in fruits: Mechanisms, influencing factors, and effective control strategies-A comprehensive review. J Agric Food Res 17: 101249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2024.101249.
Grojja Y, Hajlaoui H, Luca SV, Abidi J, Skalicka-Woźniak K, Zouari S, Bouaziz M. 2023. Untargeted phytochemical profiling, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities of a Tunisian Capsicum annuum cultivar. Molecules 28 (17): 6346. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28176346.
Guevara L, Domínguez-Anaya MÁ, Ortigosa A, González-Gordo S, Díaz, C, Vicente F, Corpas FJ, Pérez del Palacio J, Palma JM. 2021. Identification of compounds with potential therapeutic uses from sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) fruits and their modulation by nitric oxide (NO). Intl J Mol Sci 22 (9): 4476. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22094476
Gyamfi AC. 2024. Effects of preservation methods on the proximate composition of three varieties of pepper. Intl J Nutr Food Sci 13 (6): 312-319. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnfs.20241306.18.
Hamidah K, Syahni R, Sari R. 2020. Analisis permintaan cabai merah besar di Kota Padang, Sumatra Barat. Suluh Pembangunan: J Ext Dev 2 (1): 62-68. https://doi.org/10.23960/jsp.vol2.no1.2020.49. [Indonesian]
Hawa LC, Diposari RP, Lutfi M. 2021. Physical properties of dried red chili (Capsicum annuum) var. Hot Beauty as a function of moisture content. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci 733: 012010. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/733/1/012010.
Hayano-Kanashiro C, Gámez-Meza N, Medina-Juárez LÁ. 2016. Wild pepper Capsicum annuum L. var. glabriusculum: Taxonomy, plant morphology, distribution, genetic diversity, genome sequencing, and phytochemical compounds. Crop Sci 56 (1): 1-11. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2014.11.0789.
He Q, He L, Feng Z, Xiao Y, Qiu Q, Liu J, Han H, Huang X. 2025. Metabolome and transcriptome analyses of the molecular mechanism underlying light-induced anthocyanin accumulation in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) peel. Curr Issues Mol Biol 47 (9): 774. https://doi.org/10.3390/cimb47090774.
Hendrawan Y, Utami R, Nurseta DY, Nuryani S, Maharani DM. 2021. Classification of total carotene and quality of chili pepper (Capsicum frutescens) based on image analysis. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci 733: 012005. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/733/1/012005.
Hertzler SR, Lieblein-Boff JC, Weiler M, Allgeier C. 2020. Plant proteins: Assessing their nutritional quality and effects on health and physical function. Nutrients 12 (12): 3704. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123704.
Imran M, Butt MS, Suleria HAR. 2019. Capsicum annuum bioactive compounds: Health promotion perspectives. In: Mérillon JM, Ramawat K (eds). Bioactive Molecules in Food. Reference Series in Phytochemistry. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-54528-8_47-1.
IPGRI [International Plant Genetic Resources Institute]. 1995. Descriptors for Capsicum (Capsicum spp.). Bioversity International, Rome, Italy.
Jang H, Choi M, Jang K-S. 2024. Comprehensive phytochemical profiles and antioxidant activity of Korean local cultivars of red chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Front Plant Sci 15: 1333035. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2024.1333035.
Keum YS, Park HW, Song, H-H, Kim B-D, Kang B-C, Kim J-H. 2012. Metabolite analysis of long chain branched fatty acids and capsaicin biosynthesis in Capsicum annuum placenta. J Korean Soc for Appl Biol Chem 55 (2): 189-195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13765-012-1163-0.
Khan N, Ahmed MJ, Shah SZA. 2019. Comparative analysis of mineral content and proximate composition from chilli pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) germplasm. Pure Appl Biol 8 (2): 1338-1347. https://doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2019.80075.
Kurniawan FI. 2023. Bahan-bahan sumber cita rasa pedas. In: Gardjito M, Wikandari R (eds). Kuliner Pedas Indonesia: Cita Rasa Nikmat Yang Selalu Memikat. Nightoon Cookeries, Yogyakarta. [Indonesian]
Lemos VC, Reimer JJ, Wormit A. 2019. Color for life: Biosynthesis and distribution of phenolic compounds in pepper (Capsicum annuum). Agriculture 9 (4): 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture9040081.
Li P, Zhang X, Liu Y, Xie Z, Zhang R, Zhao K, Lv J, Wen J, Deng M. 2022. Characterization of 75 cultivars of four Capsicum species in terms of fruit morphology, capsaicinoids, fatty acids, and pigments. Appl Sci 12 (12): 6292. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12126292.
Li W, Wang, Y Xing L, Song W, Lu S. 2025. Analysis of volatile and non-volatile components of dried chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Foods 14 (5): 712. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14050712.
Liu Z, Yang C, He J, Zhang L, Xing X, Zhang K, Yu H, Zhang Z, Wu H, Cheng F. 2025. Characterization of metabolites and transcriptome of Pepper accessions from four southern provinces of China. Genes 16 (2): 137. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes16020137.
Lu N. 2024. Revisiting decade-old questions in proanthocyanidin biosynthesis: current understanding and new challenges. Front Plant Sci 15: 1373975. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2024.1373975.
Lozada DN, Pulicherla SR, Holguín FO. 2023. Widely targeted metabolomics reveals metabolite diversity in Jalapeño and Serrano chile peppers (Capsicum annuum L.). Metabolites 13 (2): 288. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo13020288.
Makhziah M, Mujoko T, Sukartiningrum S. 2021. Chili plants: Nutrition content and local varieties as a genetic resource. Nusantara Sci Technol Proc 2020: 4-9. https://doi.org/10.11594/nstp.2021.0902.
Malakar S, Sarkar S, Kumar N, Jaganmohan R. 2018. Studies of biochemical characteristics and identification of active phyto-compounds of king chili (Capsicum chinense Jacq.) using GC-MS. J Pharmacogn Phytochem 7 (3): 3100-3104.
Martínez-Ispizua E, Martínez-Cuenca M-R, Marsal JI, Díez MJ, Soler S, Valcárcel JV, Calatayud Á. 2021. Bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of Valencian pepper landraces. Molecules 26 (4): 1031. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26041031.
Mohd Hassan N, Yusof NA, Yahaya AF, Mohd Rozali NN, Othman R. 2019. Carotenoids of Capsicum fruits: Pigment profile and health-promoting functional attributes. Antioxidants 8 (10): 469. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8100469.
Mokhtar M, Ginestra G, Youcefi F, Filocamo A, Bisignano C, Riazi A. 2017. Antimicrobial activity of selected polyphenols and capsaicinoids identified in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) and their possible mode of interaction. Curr Microbiol 74 (11): 1253-1260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-017-1310-2.
Morales-Soriano E, Panozzo A, Ugás R, Grauwet T, Van Loey A, Hendrickx M. 2019. Carotenoid profile and basic structural indicators of native Peruvian chili peppers. Eur Food Res Technol 245: 717-732. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-018-3193-2.
Nanda RF, Yenrina R, Yolanda M, Azima F, Syukri D. 2023. Karakterisasi cabai merah giling yang disimpan dalam media kolam ikan masyarakat di Kota Padang, Sumatera Barat. J Biosense 6 (2): 171-185. https://doi.org/10.36526/biosense.v6i02.3304. [Indonesian]
Nawaz R, Abbasi NA, Hafiz IA, Khalid A. 2019. Color-break effect on Kinnow (Citrus nobilis Lour x Citrus deliciosa Tenora) fruit‘s internal quality at early ripening stages under varying environmental conditions. Scientia Horticulturae 256: 108514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2019.05.041.
Nimmakayala P, Lopez-Ortiz C, Shahi B, Abburi VL, Natarajan P, Kshetry AO, Shinde S, Davenport B, Stommel J, Reddy UK. 2021. Exploration into natural variation for genes associated with fruit shape and size among Capsicum chinense collections. Genomics 113 (5): 3002-3014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygeno.2021.06.041.
Orobiyi A, Ahissou H, Gbaguidi F, Sanoussi F, Houngbèmè A, Dansi A, Sanni A. 2015. Capsaicin and ascorbic acid content in the high-yielding chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) landraces of northern Benin. Intl J Curr Microbiol Appl Sci 4 (9): 394-403.
Pandey AK, Sahu A, Harit AK, Singh M. 2023. Nutritional composition of the wild variety of edible vegetables consumed by the tribal community of Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India. Sci Temper 14 (1): 29-36. https://doi.org/10.58414/scientifictemper.2023.14.1.05.
Paparella A, Shaltiel-Harpaz L, Ibdah M. 2021. β-Ionone: Its occurrence, biological function, and metabolic engineering. Plants 10 (4): 754. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040754.
Peñuela M, Arias LL, Viáfara-Vega R, Franco NR, Cárdenas H. 2021. Morphological and molecular description of three commercial Capsicum varieties: A look at the correlation of traits and genetic distancing. Genet Resour Crop Evol 68: 261-277. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-020-00983-8.
Ranilla LG, Kwon Y-I, Apostolidis E, Shetty K. 2010. Phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity, and in vitro inhibitory potential against key enzymes relevant for hyperglycemia and hypertension of commonly used medicinal plants, herbs, and spices in Latin America. Bioresour Technol 101 (12): 4676-4689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.01.093.
Rodrigues CA, Nicácio AE, Jardim ICSF, Visentainer JV, Maldaner L. 2019. Determination of phenolic compounds in red sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) using a modified QuEChERS method and UHPLC-MS/MS analysis and its relation to antioxidant activity. J Braz Chem Soc 30 (6): 1229-1240. https://doi.org/10.21577/0103-5053.20190018.
Rodríguez-Pulido FJ, Gil-Vicente M, Gordillo B, Heredia FJ, González-Miret ML. 2017. Measurement of ripening of raspberries (Rubus idaeus L.) by near infrared and colorimetric imaging techniques. J Food Sci Technol 54: 2797-2803. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-017-2716-3.
Sadef Y, Javed T, Javed R, Mahmood A, Alwahibi MS, Elshikh MS, AbdelGawwa MR, Alhaji JH, Rasheed RA. 2022. Nutritional status, antioxidant activity, and total phenolic content of different fruits and vegetables' peels. PLoS One 17 (5): e0265566. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265566.
Saleh BK, Omer A, Teweldemedhin B. 2018. Medicinal uses and health benefits of chili pepper (Capsicum spp.): A review. MOJ Food Process Technol 6 (4): 325-328. https://doi.org/10.15406/mojfpt.2018.06.00183.
Sarafi E, Siomos A, Tsouvaltzis P, Chatzissavvidis C, Therios I. 2018. Boron and maturity effects on biochemical parameters and antioxidant activity of pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cultivars. Turk J Agric For 42 (4): 237-247. https://doi.org/10.3906/tar-1708-31.
Sugimoto K, Irani NG, Grotewold E, Howe GA. 2024. Catalytically impaired chalcone isomerase retains flavonoid biosynthetic capacity. Plant Physiol 195 (2): 1143-1147. https://doi.org/10.1093/plphys/kiae096.
Suliansyah I, Ekawati F, Hariandi D. 2023. Identification and morphological characterization of local red chilies from West Sumatra. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci 1160: 012013. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1160/1/012013.
Sunarmani, Agustinisari I, Setyadjit. 2024. A study of the organoleptic and chemical characteristics of spiced shredded chili. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci 1364: 012079. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1364/1/012079.
Syukri D. 2021. Bagan Alir Analisis Proksimat Bahan Pangan (Volumetri dan Gravimetri). Andalas University Press, Padang. [Indonesian]
Tura AM, Debisa MD, Tulu ED, Tilinti BZ. 2023. Evaluation of proximate, phytochemical, and heavy metal content in black cumin and fenugreek cultivated in the Gamo zone, Ethiopia. Intl J Food Sci 2023 (1): 3404674. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/3404674.
Wahyuni Y, Ballester A-R, Sudarmonowati E, Bino RJ, Bovy AG. 2011. Metabolite biodiversity in pepper (Capsicum) fruits of thirty-two diverse accessions: Variation in health-related compounds and implications for breeding. Phytochemistry 72 (11-12): 1358-1370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2011.03.016.
Xavier AAO, Pérez-Gálvez A. 2016. Peppers and Chilies. Encyclopedia of Food and Health. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00533-X.
Xue Y, He T, Yu K, Zhao A, Zheng W, Zhang Y, Zhu B. 2017. Association between spicy food consumption and lipid profiles in adults: A nationwide population-based study. Br J Nutr 118 (2): 144-153. https://doi.org/10.1017/s000711451700157x.
Yang Y, Cai Q, Wang X, Yang Y, Li L, Sun Z, Li W. 2025. Transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses reveal differences in flavonoid synthesis during fruit development of Capsicum frutescens pericarp. Agriculture 15 (2): 222. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15020222.
Yazaki K, Arimura G-I, Ohnishi T. 2017. 'Hidden' terpenoids in plants: Their biosynthesis, localization and ecological roles. Plant Cell Physiol 58 (10): 1615-1621. https://doi.org/10.1093/pcp/pcx123.
Zamljen T, Medič A, Veberič R, Hudina M, Jakopič J, Slatnar A. 2021. Metabolic variation among fruits of different chili cultivars (Capsicum spp.) using HPLC/MS. Plants 11 (1): 101. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11010101.
Zhang W, Wang S, Yang J, Kang C, Huang L, Guo L. 2022. Glycosylation of plant secondary metabolites: Regulating from chaos to harmony. Environ Exp Bot 194: 104703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2021.104703.
Zhou X-J, Zhu C-T, Hu Y, You S, Wu F-A, Wang J. 2020. A novel microfluidic aqueous two-phase system with immobilized enzyme enhances cyanidin-3-O-glucoside content in red pigments from mulberry fruits. Biochem Eng J 158: 107556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bej.2020.107556.
Zulkarnain Z, Eliyanti E, Ichwan B. 2023. Morphology and phylogenetic relationships of five chili cultivars from Sumatra, Indonesia. E3S Web Conf 373: 03028. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202337303028.