Fecal contamination and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Escherichia coli in rural water sources of Bali, Indonesia
Article Sidebar
Abstract Views: 364
File Views: 1229
Main Article Content
Abstract
Abstract. Saputra IWAGM, Mayura IPB, Hendrayana MA, Suardana IW, Budayanti NNS. 2025. Fecal contamination and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Escherichia coli in rural water sources of Bali, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 26: 4923-4931. Escherichia coli is a key indicator of human fecal contamination in environmental waters, providing insight into sanitary conditions and potential health risks, including the presence of diarrheagenic genotypes and antimicrobial-resistant strains such as extended-spectrum ?-lactamase (ESBL) producers. This study assessed fecal coliform contamination in rural water sources and characterized E. coli isolates for pathogenic potential and antimicrobial susceptibility within the context of the SAJAKA (Antibiotic-Wise Village) Project in Bali, Indonesia. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in August 2024 across 24 sites, including 16 river points (upstream, midstream, downstream) and 8 springs, in four rural villages. Single 250 mL water samples were analyzed using the Most Probable Number (MPN) method, cultured in Lactose Broth at 37°C, and confirmed in Brilliant Green Lactose Bile Broth at 44.5°C. Positive cultures were transferred to eosin methylene blue agar, colonies with a metallic green sheen were purified and identified using the VITEK 2 Compact system, and confirmed E. coli isolates were subjected to PCR to detect virulence-associated genes. Fecal coliforms were detected in 41.7% of sites (10 of 24, n=24) of sites, with higher prevalence in rivers (8 of 16, 50%) compared to springs (10 of 24, 25%), and spatial clustering was observed in downstream segments of the Yeh Ge and Yeh Dati Rivers. Eight isolates were identified as E. coli and two as Klebsiella pneumoniae subsp. pneumoniae. None of the E. coli isolates carried virulence genes of diarrheagenic pathotypes, and all were susceptible to third-generation cephalosporins, indicating the absence of ESBL production. Although ESBL and diarrheagenic E. coli were not detected, the presence of E. coli indicates contamination and therefore the water is nonpotable and calls for corrective action. Continued monitoring, particularly for antimicrobial resistance, is essential to support water safety and public health strategies within a One Health framework.
Article Details
Issue
Section
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
References
Abbasi P, Kargar M, Doosti A, Mardaneh J, Ghorbani-Dalini S, Dehyadegari MA. 2017. Molecular detection of diffusely adherent Escherichia coli strains associated with diarrhea in Shiraz, Iran. Arch Pediatic Infect Dis 5 (2): e37629. DOI: 10.5812/pedinfect.37629.
Abe K, Nomura N, Suzuki S. 2021. Biofilms: Hot spots of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) in aquatic environments, with a focus on a new HGT mechanism. Oxford University Press, Oxford. DOI: 10.1093/FEMSEC/FIAA031.
Abualtayef MT, Abd Rabou AN, Abu Foul AA, Ghabayen SM, Elsinwar HM. 2014. Microbial water quality of coastal recreational water in the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Nusantara Bioscience 6: 26-32. DOI: 10.13057/nusbiosci/n060105.
Adenaya A, Adeniran AA, Ugwuoke CL, Saliu K, Raji MA, Rakshit A, Ribas-Ribas M, Könneke M. 2025. Environmental risk factors contributing to the spread of antibiotic resistance in West Africa. Microorganisms 13: 951. DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms13040951.
APHA [American Public Health Association]. 2023. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater 24th Edition 24 (American Public Health Association).
Bagordo F, Brigida S, Grassi T, Caputo MC, Apollonio F, De Carlo L, Savino AF, Triggiano F, Turturro AC, De Donno A, Montagna MT, De Giglio O. 2024. Factors influencing microbial contamination of groundwater: A systematic review of field-scale studies. Microorganisms 12: 1-18. DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12050913.
Belete MA, Demlie TB, Chekole WS, Tessema TS. 2022. Molecular identification of diarrheagenic Escherichia coli pathotypes and their antibiotic resistance patterns among diarrheic children and in contact calves in Bahir Dar City, Northwest Ethiopia. PLoS One 17 (9): e0275229. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0275229.
Boulgueraguer Z, Chaffai H, Gasmi L, Djabri L, Hani A. 2022. Impact of organic and microbiological pollution on the quality of water in Boussellam Valley and its environment, Setif City, Northeast Algeria. Biodiversitas 23: 2621-2629. DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d230545.
Cappuccino JG, Sherman N. 2018. Microbiology: A laboratory Manual. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco.
Carrard N, Foster T, Willetts J. 2019. Groundwater as a source of drinking water in southeast Asia and the Pacific: A multi-country review of current reliance and resource concerns. Water 11 (8): 1605. DOI: 10.3390/w11081605.
Chen F, Zhou B, Yang L, Chen X, Zhuang J. 2023. Predicting bacterial transport through saturated porous media using an automated machine learning model. Front Microbiol 14: 1152059. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1152059.
Deblais L, Ahmedo BU, Ojeda A, Mummed B, Wang Y, Mekonnen YT, Weldesenbet YD, Hassen KA, Brhane M, Mckune SL, Havelaar AH, Liang S, Rajashekara G. 2024. Assessing fecal contamination from human and environmental sources using Escherichia coli as an indicator in rural eastern Ethiopian households - a study from the EXCAM project. Front Public Health 12: 1484808. DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1484808.
Delpy L, Astbury CC, Aenishaenslin C, Ruckert A, Penney TL, Wiktorowicz M, Ciss M, Benko R, Bordier M. 2024. Integrated surveillance systems for antibiotic resistance in a One Health context: A scoping review. BMC Public Health 24: 1717. DOI: 10.1186/s12889-024-19158-6.
Díaz-Gavidia C, Barría C, Weller DL, Salgado-Caxito M, Estrada EM, Araya A, Vera L, Smith W, Kim M, Moreno-Switt AI, Olivares-Pacheco J, Adell AD. 2022. Humans and hoofed livestock are the main sources of fecal contamination of rivers used for crop irrigation: A microbial source tracking approach. Front Microbiol 13: 768527. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.768527.
Ejiohuo O, Onyeaka H, Akinsemolu A, Nwabor OF, Siyanbola KF, Tamasiga P, Al-Sharify ZT. 2025. Ensuring water purity: Mitigating environmental risks and safeguarding human health. Water Biol Secur 4: 100341. DOI: 10.1016/j.watbs.2024.100341.
Fatokun O, Selvaraja M, Anuar H, Jamaluddin TZMT, Ismail SNS, Mansor R, Shah SA, Oranye N. 2024. Antimicrobial resistance at the human-animal-environment interface: A focus on antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli transmission dynamics, clinical implications, and future directions. Intl J One Health 10: 161-171. DOI: 10.14202/IJOH.2024.161-171.
Fenta MC, Anteneh ZL, Szanyi J, Walker D. 2020. Hydrogeological framework of the volcanic aquifers and groundwater quality in Dangila town and the surrounding area, Northwest Ethiopia. Groundwater Sustain Dev 11: 100408. DOI: 10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100408.
Geospasial. 2025. Badan Informasi Geospasial Tanah Air Indonesia. Available at https://tanahair.indonesia.go.id/portal-web/. [August 13, 2025] [Indonesian]
Gizachew M, Admasie A, Wegi C, Assefa E. 2020. Bacteriological contamination of drinking water supply from protected water sources to point of use and water handling practices among beneficiary households of Boloso Sore Woreda, Wolaita Zone, Ethiopia. Intl J Microbiol 2020 (1): 5340202. DOI: 10.1155/2020/5340202.
Gunzburg ST, Tornieporth NG, Riley LW. 1995. Identification of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli by PCR-based detection of the bundle-forming pilus gene. J Clin Microbiol 33: 1375-1377. DOI: 10.1128/jcm.33.5.1375-1377.1995.
Han H, Li W, Liu J, Zhang X, Huo X, Sun Y, Chen J, Fan R, Zhang J, Chen Y, Yang H, Chen S, Li Y, Tan D, Ma X. 2024. Seven year overview of antimicrobial resistance in diarrheagenic Escherichia coli from sporadic human diarrhea cases in 20 Chinese provinces. One Health Adv 2 (1): 29. DOI: 10.1186/s44280-024-00064-w.
Holcomb DA, Stewart JR. 2020. Microbial indicators of fecal pollution: Recent progress and challenges in assessing water quality. Curr Environ Health Rep 7: 311-324. DOI: 10.1007/s40572-020-00278-1.
Lau M, Monis PT, King BJ. 2024. The efficacy of current treatment processes to remove, inactivate, or reduce environmental bloom-forming Escherichia coli. Microbiol Spectr 12: e0085624. DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00856-24.
Lee JE, Reed J, Shields MS, Spiegel KM, Farrell LD, Sheridan PP. 2007. Phylogenetic analysis of Shiga toxin 1 and Shiga toxin 2 genes associated with disease outbreaks. BMC Microbiol 7: 109. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2180-7-109.
Li P, Karunanidhi D, Subramani T, Srinivasamoorthy K. 2021a. Sources and consequences of groundwater contamination. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 80: 1-10. DOI: 10.1007/s00244-020-00805-z.
Li E, Saleem F, Edge TA, Schellhorn HE. 2021b. Biological indicators for fecal pollution detection and source tracking: A review. Processes 9 (11): 2058. DOI: 10.3390/pr9112058.
Maes S, Odlare M, Jonsson A. 2022. Fecal indicator organisms in northern oligotrophic rivers: An explorative study on Escherichia coli prevalence in a mountain region with intense tourism and reindeer herding. Environ Monit Assess 194 (4): 264. DOI: 10.1007/s10661-022-09865-1.
Michaelis C, Grohmann E. 2023. Horizontal gene transfer of antibiotic resistance genes in biofilms. Antibiotics 12 (2): 328. DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12020328.
Moretto VT, Cordeiro SM, Bartley PS, Silva LK, Ponce-Terashima R, Reis MG, Blanton RE, Barbosa LM. 2021. Antimicrobial-resistant enterobacteria in surface waters with fecal contamination from urban and rural communities. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 54: 1-6. DOI: 10.1590/0037-8682-0724-2020.
Nayebare JG, Owor MM, Kulabako R, Taylor RG. 2022. Fecal contamination pathways of shallow groundwater in low-income urban areas: mplications for water resource planning and management. Water Pract Technol 17: 285-296. DOI: 10.2166/wpt.2021.110.
Novita E, Pradana HA, Purnomo BH, Puspitasari AI. 2020. River water quality assessment in East Java, Indonesia. J Water Land Dev 47: 135-141. DOI: 10.24425/jwld.2020.135040.
Onwudiegwu C, Chibueze IS. 2025. Integrated one health strategies for sustainable potable water systems and ecosystem protection. Greener J Environ Manag Public Saf 13: 1-18. DOI: 10.15580/gjemps.2025.1.020425018.
Petersen F, Hubbart JA. 2020. Physical factors impacting the survival and occurrence of Escherichia coli in secondary habitats. Water 12: 1796. DOI: 10.3390/w12061796.
Race AS, Spoelstra J, Parker BL. 2024. Wastewater contaminants in a fractured bedrock aquifer and their potential use as enteric virus indicators. Appl Environ Microbiol 90 (2): e0121323. DOI: 10.1128/aem.01213-23.
Rose JB, Hofstra N, Hollmann E, Katsivelis P, Medema GJ, Murphy HM, Naughton CC, Verbyla ME. 2023. Global microbial water quality data and predictive analytics: Key to health and meeting SDG 6. PLOS Water 2: e0000166. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pwat.0000166.
Saldaña Almazán M, Leyva Zuñiga AP, Moreno Mendoza E, Calderón Arellanes MP, Suastegui Cruz S. 2025. Community management and sustainability of water supply in a rural area of Guerrero, Mexico. Sustainability 17: 4633. DOI: 10.3390/su17104633.
Saputra IWAGM, Yanti NKS, Lesmana CBJ, Nasrum MM, Weta IW, Suardana IW, Sawitri AAS, Hendrayana MA, Wirawan IMA, Budayanti NNS. 2025. The antibiotic-wise village: A multisectoral one health approach for local AMR mitigation. Universal J Public Health 13 (5): 1121-1134. DOI: 10.13189/ujph.2025.130504.
Some S, Mondal R, Mitra D, Jain D, Verma D, Das S. 2021. Microbial pollution of water with special reference to coliform bacteria and their nexus with environment. Energy Nexus 1: 100008. DOI: 10.1016/j.nexus.2021.100008.
Tintaya PAA, Martínez EMV, Vicent BM, Garcia JL, Torregrosa-López JI, Lo-Iacono-ferreira VG. 2022. On the road to sustainable water supply: Reducing public health risks and preserving surface water resources in the milluni micro-basin, Bolivia. Environments 9 (1): 4. DOI: 10.3390/environments9010004.
Toma C, Lu Y, Higa N, Nakasone N, Chinen I, Baschkier A, Rivas M, Iwanaga M. 2003. Multiplex PCR assay for identification of human diarrheagenic Escherichia coli. J Clin Microbiol 41: 2669-2671. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.41.6.2669-2671.2003.
Wen X, Chen F, Lin Y, Zhu H, Yuan F, Kuang D, Jia Z, Yuan Z. 2020. Microbial indicators and their use for monitoring drinking water quality-A review. Sustainability 12: 2249. DOI: 10.3390/su12062249.
Widianingtias M, Kazama S, Benyapa S, Takizawa S. 2023. Assessment of water reclamation and reuse potential in Bali Province, Indonesia. Water 15 (14): 2642. DOI: 10.3390/w15142642.
Wu J, Cao Y, Islam MS, Emch M. 2025. Application of machine learning to identify influential factors for fecal contamination of shallow groundwater. Water 17 (2): 160. DOI: 10.3390/w17020160.