Short Communication: Ethnobotanical study of wild and cultivated vegetables in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
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Abstract. Maroyi A. 2020. Short Communication: Ethnobotanical study of wild and cultivated vegetables in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Biodiversitas 21: 3982-3988. Vegetables are an important component of agricultural biodiversity required for providing a wide range of ecosystem goods and services. The current study was undertaken in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa to document wild and cultivated vegetables. Research data were collected by means of interviews and field surveys carried out in different seasons with one hundred and thirty-eight randomly selected participants. During the interviews, we documented information on names of edible vegetables, uses, plant parts consumed, and their preparation. A total of 32 species belonging to 26 genera and 15 families were recorded in the study area. The plant families with highest number of vegetable species were Amaranthaceae, Asteraceae, and Solanaceae with at least four species each. The main uses of vegetables identified in the study area were leafy vegetables (59.4%), edible fruits and tubers (21.9% each), culinary herbs or spices (12.5%), edible seeds (9.4%) and edible stems (6.3%). The species which were categorized as important with relative frequency of citation (RFC) values >0.3 were Brassica oleracea, Solanum tuberosum, Cucurbita moschata, Spinacia oleracea, and Cucurbita maxima. Both vegetable species collected from the wild and conventional vegetables cultivated in home gardens are important to livelihoods needs of the local people.
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References
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Achigan-Dako E, N’Danikou S, Assogba-Komlan F, et al. 2011. Diversity, geographical, and consumption patterns of traditional vegetables in sociolinguistic communities in Benin: implications for domestication and utilization. Economic Botany 65: 129-145.
Afari-Sefa V, Tenkouano A, Ojiewo CO, et al. 2011. Vegetable breeding in Africa: constraints, complexity and contributions toward achieving food and nutritional security. Food Security 4: 115–127.
Alexander J, Cocks ML, Shackleton C. 2015. The landscape of childhood: play and place as tools to understanding children’s environmental use and perceptions. Human Ecology 43: 467–480.
Ali–Shtayeh MS, Jamous RM, Al-Shafie JH, et al. 2008. Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants used in Palestine (northern West Bank): a comparative study. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 4: 13.
Aryal KP, Poudel S, Chaudhary RP, et al. 2018. Diversity and use of wild and noncultivated edible plants in the Western Himalaya. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 14: 10.
Atyosi Z, Ramarumo LJ, Maroyi A. 2019. Alien plants in the Eastern Cape province in South Africa: Perceptions of their contributions to livelihoods of local communities. Sustainability 11: 5043.
Bennett BC. 2010. Plants as food. In: Bennett B (Ed.), Economic botany: Encyclopedia of life support systems (EOLSS). Eolss publishers, Oxford, UK, pp. 1-5.
Bhat RB, Rubuluza T. 2002. The bio-diversity of traditional vegetables of the Transkei region in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 68(1): 94–97.
Bhatia H, Sharma YP, Manhas PK, et al. 2018. Traditionally used wild edible plants of district Udhampur, J&K, India. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 14: 73.
Bvenura C, Afolayan AJ. 2014. Ethnobotanical survey of wild vegetables in Mbashe and Nkonkobe municipalities, Eastern Cape province, South Africa. Acta Botanica Gallica Botany Letters 161(2): 189–199.
Caballero-Serrano V, Onaindia M, Alday JG, et al. 2016. Plant diversity and ecosystem services in Amazonian homegardens of Ecuador. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 225: 116–125.
Catarino L, Romeiras MM, Bancessi Q, et al. 2019. Edible leafy vegetables from West Africa (Guinea-Bissau): Consumption, trade and food potential. Foods 8: 493.
Chambers R. 1994. The origins and practice of Participatory Rural Appraisal. World Development 22: 953–969.
Chauhan SH, Yadav S, Takahashi T, et al. 2018. Consumption patterns of wild edibles by the Vasavas: a case study from Gujarat, India. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 14: 57.
Clarke LW, Li L, Jenerette GD, Yu Z. 2014. Drivers of plant biodiversity and ecosystem service production in home gardens across the Beijing Municipality of China. Urban Ecosystems 17(3): 741–760.
Dansi A, Adjatin A, Adoukonou-Sagbadja H, et al. 2008. Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the Benin Republic. Genetic Resources Crop Evolution 55: 1239–1256.
Das G, Patra JK, Singdevsachan SK, et al. 2016. Diversity of traditional and fermented foods of the seven sister states of India and their nutritional and nutraceutical potential: a review. Frontiers in Life Science 9: 292–312.
Dias JS. 2012. Nutritional quality and health benefits of vegetables: a review. Food and Nutrition Sciences 3: 1354-1374.
Ebert AW. 2014. Potential of underutilized traditional vegetables and legume crops to contribute to food and nutritional security, income and more sustainable production systems. Sustainability 6(1): 319–335.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2019. The state of the world’s biodiversity for food and agriculture. In: Belanger J, Pilling D (Eds.), FAO commission on genetic resources for food and agriculture assessments. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2001. FAO’s state of food insecurity 2001. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Fayemi PO, Muchenje V. 2014. Farmers’ preference for mutton and lamb from natural veld in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Journal of Food Agriculture and Environment 12(2): 15-19.
Germishuizen G, Meyer NL. 2003. Plants of southern Africa: an annotated checklist. Strelitzia 14, National Botanical Institute, Pretoria, South Africa.
Grubben GJH, Denton OA. 2004. Plant resources of tropical Africa 2: vegetables. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands.
Hammer Ø, Harper DAT, Ryan RD. 2001. PAST: palaeontological statistics software package for education and data analysis. Palaeontologia Electronica 4: 1–9.
Heinrich M, Leonti M, Nebel S, et al. 2005. Understanding local Mediterranean diets: a multidisciplinary pharmacological and ethnobotanical approach. Pharmacological Research 52: 353–366.
Hosu SY, Cishe EN, Luswazi PN. 2016. Vulnerability to climate change in Eastern Cape province of South Africa: What does the future holds for smallholder crop farmers? Agrekon 55: 133-167.
Jari B, Fraser GCG. 2012. Influence of institutional and technical factors on market choices of smallholder farmers in the Kat River Valley. In: Van Schalkwyk HD, Groenewald JA, Fraser GCG, Obi A, Van Tilburg A (Eds.), Unlocking markets to smallholders: Lessons from South Africa. Wageningen Academic Press, Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp. 59-89.
Ju Y, Zhuo J, Liu B, et al. 2013. Eating from the wild: diversity of wild edible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region, Yunnan, China. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 9: 28.
Kahane R, Hodgkin T, Jaenicke H, et al. 2013. Agrobiodiversity for food security, health and income. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 33: 671–693.
Keatinge JDH, Yang R-Y, Hughes DAJ, et al. 2011. The importance of vegetables in ensuring both food and nutritional security in attainment of the Millennium Development Goals. Food Security 3: 491–501.
Kumar BM, Nair PKR. 2004. The enigma of tropical homegardens. Agroforestry Systems 61: 135–152.
Leonti M, Nebel S, Rivera D, et al. 2006. Wild gathered food plants in the European Mediterranean: a comparative analysis. Economic Botany 60: 130–142.
Manyevere A, Muchaonyerwa P, Laker MC, et al. 2014. Farmers’ perspectives with regard to crop production: An analysis of Nkonkobe Municipality, South Africa. Journal of Agriculture Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics 115: 41-53.
Mapekula M, Chimonyo M, Mapiye C, et al. 2009. Milk production and calf rearing practices in the smallholder areas in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Tropical Animal Health and Production 41: 1475.
Maundu P, Achigan-Dako E, Morimoto Y. 2009. Biodiversity of African vegetables. In: Shackleton CM, Pasquini MW, Drescher AW (Eds.), African indigenous vegetables in urban agriculture. Earthscan, London, UK.
Menendez-Baceta G, Aceituno-Mata L, Tardío J, et al. 2012. Wild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay, Basque country). Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 59(7): 1329–1347.
Misra S, Maikhuri RK, Kala CP, et al. 2008. Wild leafy vegetables: a study of their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, India. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 4: 15.
Mthi S, Skenjana A, Fayemi PO. 2017. Characteristics of smallscale sheep production systems in some communal areas of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa. International Journal of Livestock Production 8: 199–206.
Mucina L, Rutherford MC. 2006. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria, South Africa.
Ndhleve S, Nakin MDV, Longo-Mbenza B. 2017. Impacts of supplemental irrigation as a climate change adaptation strategy for maize production: a case of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Water SA 43(2): 222–228.
Ndhleve S, Musemwa L, Zhou L. 2013. How severe hunger is amongst rural households of the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development 4: 220-227.
Ngone AM, Ndam LM, Mih AM. 2016. Survey of wild vegetables in the Lebialem Highlands of south western Cameroon. Journal of Plant Sciences 4(6): 172-184.
Ntuli NR, Zobolo AM, Siebert SJ, et al. 2012. Traditional vegetables of northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: Has indigenous knowledge expanded the menu? African Journal of Agricultural Research 7(45): 6027-6034.
Ochieng J, Afari-Sefa V, Karanja D, et al. 2017. How promoting consumption of traditional African vegetables affects household nutrition security in Tanzania. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 33(2): 1–11.
Ojelel S, Mucunguzi P, Katuura E, et al. 2019. Wild edible plants used by communities in and around selected forest reserves of Teso-Karamoja region, Uganda. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 15: 3.
Ojiewo CO, Tenkouano A, Hughes JA, et al. 2015. The role of vegetables and legumes in assuring food, nutrition and income security for vulnerable groups in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Medical and Health Policy 7(3): 187–210.
Orech FO, Aagaard-Hansen J, Friis H. 2007. Ethnoecology of traditional leafy vegetables of the Luo people of Bondo district, western Kenya. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 58(7): 522-530.
Romojaro A, Botella MA, Obon C, et al. 2013. Nutritional and antioxidant properties of wild edible plants and their use as potential ingredients in the modern diet. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 64: 944–952.
Rubatzky VE, Yamaguchi M. 1997. Importance of vegetables in human nutrition. In: Rubatzky VE, Yamaguchi M (Eds.), World vegetables. Chapman and Hall, New York, USA, pp. 34-56.
Rush E, Savila F, Jalili-Moghaddam S, et al. 2019. Vegetables: New Zealand children are not eating enough. Frontiers in Nutrition 5: 134.
Sansanelli S, Ferri M, Salinitro M, et al. 2017. Ethnobotanical survey of wild food plants traditionally collected and consumed in the Middle Agri Valley (Basilicata region, southern Italy). Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 13: 50.
Schreinemachers P, Simmons EB, Wopereis MCS. 2018. Tapping the economic and nutritional power of vegetables. Global Food Security 16: 36–45.
Semenya SS, Maroyi A. 2020. Assessment of useful alien plant species cultivated and managed in rural home gardens of Limpopo province, South Africa. Scientifica article ID 3561306.
Shin T, Fujikawa K, Moe AZ, et al. 2018. Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants with special emphasis on medicinal uses in Southern Shan State, Myanmar. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 14: 48.
Sundriyal M, Sundriyal RC. 2004. Wild edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: marketing, value addition and implications for management. Economic Botany 58(2): 300–315.
Tardío J, Pardo-de-Santayana M. 2008. Cultural importance indices: A comparative analysis based on the useful wild plants of southern Cantabria (Northern Spain). Economic Botany 62: 24–39.
Thakur D, Sharma A, Uniyal SK. 2017. Why they eat, what they eat: patterns of wild edible plants consumption in a tribal area of Western Himalaya. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 13: 70.
Thorn JPR, Thornton TF, Helfgott A, et al. 2020. Indigenous uses of wild and tended plant biodiversity maintain ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes of the Terai Plains of Nepal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 16: 33.
Towns AM, Shackleton C. 2018. Traditional, indigenous, or leafy? A definition, typology, and way forward for African vegetables. Economic Botany 72(4): 461–477.
Trotter RT, Logan MH. 1986. Informant census: A new approach for identifying potentially effective medicinal plants. In: Etkin LN (Ed.), Plants in indigenous medicine and diet. Redgrave, New York, USA, pp. 91-112.
Turner NJ, Luczaj LJ, Migliorini P, et al. 2011. Edible and tented wild plants, traditional ecological knowledge and agroecology. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 30: 198–225.
Turreira-García N, Vilkamaa AM, Byg A, et al. 2017. Diversity, knowledge, and use of leafy vegetables in northern Thailand: Maintenance and transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge during urbanization. Natural History Bulletin of the Siam Society 62: 85-105.
Ülger TG, Songur AN, Ç?rak O, et al. 2018. Role of vegetables in human nutrition and disease prevention. In: Asaduzzaman M, Asao T (Eds.), Vegetables: Importance of quality vegetables to human health. IntechOpen Ltd., London, UK, pp. 7–32.
Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Shrestha KK, et al. 2012. Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources in Nepal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 8: 16.
Welbaum GE. 2015. Vegetable production and practices. CABI, Wallingford, UK
Achigan-Dako E, N’Danikou S, Assogba-Komlan F, et al. 2011. Diversity, geographical, and consumption patterns of traditional vegetables in sociolinguistic communities in Benin: implications for domestication and utilization. Economic Botany 65: 129-145.
Afari-Sefa V, Tenkouano A, Ojiewo CO, et al. 2011. Vegetable breeding in Africa: constraints, complexity and contributions toward achieving food and nutritional security. Food Security 4: 115–127.
Alexander J, Cocks ML, Shackleton C. 2015. The landscape of childhood: play and place as tools to understanding children’s environmental use and perceptions. Human Ecology 43: 467–480.
Ali–Shtayeh MS, Jamous RM, Al-Shafie JH, et al. 2008. Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants used in Palestine (northern West Bank): a comparative study. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 4: 13.
Aryal KP, Poudel S, Chaudhary RP, et al. 2018. Diversity and use of wild and noncultivated edible plants in the Western Himalaya. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 14: 10.
Atyosi Z, Ramarumo LJ, Maroyi A. 2019. Alien plants in the Eastern Cape province in South Africa: Perceptions of their contributions to livelihoods of local communities. Sustainability 11: 5043.
Bennett BC. 2010. Plants as food. In: Bennett B (Ed.), Economic botany: Encyclopedia of life support systems (EOLSS). Eolss publishers, Oxford, UK, pp. 1-5.
Bhat RB, Rubuluza T. 2002. The bio-diversity of traditional vegetables of the Transkei region in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. South African Journal of Botany 68(1): 94–97.
Bhatia H, Sharma YP, Manhas PK, et al. 2018. Traditionally used wild edible plants of district Udhampur, J&K, India. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 14: 73.
Bvenura C, Afolayan AJ. 2014. Ethnobotanical survey of wild vegetables in Mbashe and Nkonkobe municipalities, Eastern Cape province, South Africa. Acta Botanica Gallica Botany Letters 161(2): 189–199.
Caballero-Serrano V, Onaindia M, Alday JG, et al. 2016. Plant diversity and ecosystem services in Amazonian homegardens of Ecuador. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 225: 116–125.
Catarino L, Romeiras MM, Bancessi Q, et al. 2019. Edible leafy vegetables from West Africa (Guinea-Bissau): Consumption, trade and food potential. Foods 8: 493.
Chambers R. 1994. The origins and practice of Participatory Rural Appraisal. World Development 22: 953–969.
Chauhan SH, Yadav S, Takahashi T, et al. 2018. Consumption patterns of wild edibles by the Vasavas: a case study from Gujarat, India. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 14: 57.
Clarke LW, Li L, Jenerette GD, Yu Z. 2014. Drivers of plant biodiversity and ecosystem service production in home gardens across the Beijing Municipality of China. Urban Ecosystems 17(3): 741–760.
Dansi A, Adjatin A, Adoukonou-Sagbadja H, et al. 2008. Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the Benin Republic. Genetic Resources Crop Evolution 55: 1239–1256.
Das G, Patra JK, Singdevsachan SK, et al. 2016. Diversity of traditional and fermented foods of the seven sister states of India and their nutritional and nutraceutical potential: a review. Frontiers in Life Science 9: 292–312.
Dias JS. 2012. Nutritional quality and health benefits of vegetables: a review. Food and Nutrition Sciences 3: 1354-1374.
Ebert AW. 2014. Potential of underutilized traditional vegetables and legume crops to contribute to food and nutritional security, income and more sustainable production systems. Sustainability 6(1): 319–335.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2019. The state of the world’s biodiversity for food and agriculture. In: Belanger J, Pilling D (Eds.), FAO commission on genetic resources for food and agriculture assessments. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2001. FAO’s state of food insecurity 2001. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Fayemi PO, Muchenje V. 2014. Farmers’ preference for mutton and lamb from natural veld in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Journal of Food Agriculture and Environment 12(2): 15-19.
Germishuizen G, Meyer NL. 2003. Plants of southern Africa: an annotated checklist. Strelitzia 14, National Botanical Institute, Pretoria, South Africa.
Grubben GJH, Denton OA. 2004. Plant resources of tropical Africa 2: vegetables. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands.
Hammer Ø, Harper DAT, Ryan RD. 2001. PAST: palaeontological statistics software package for education and data analysis. Palaeontologia Electronica 4: 1–9.
Heinrich M, Leonti M, Nebel S, et al. 2005. Understanding local Mediterranean diets: a multidisciplinary pharmacological and ethnobotanical approach. Pharmacological Research 52: 353–366.
Hosu SY, Cishe EN, Luswazi PN. 2016. Vulnerability to climate change in Eastern Cape province of South Africa: What does the future holds for smallholder crop farmers? Agrekon 55: 133-167.
Jari B, Fraser GCG. 2012. Influence of institutional and technical factors on market choices of smallholder farmers in the Kat River Valley. In: Van Schalkwyk HD, Groenewald JA, Fraser GCG, Obi A, Van Tilburg A (Eds.), Unlocking markets to smallholders: Lessons from South Africa. Wageningen Academic Press, Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp. 59-89.
Ju Y, Zhuo J, Liu B, et al. 2013. Eating from the wild: diversity of wild edible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region, Yunnan, China. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 9: 28.
Kahane R, Hodgkin T, Jaenicke H, et al. 2013. Agrobiodiversity for food security, health and income. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 33: 671–693.
Keatinge JDH, Yang R-Y, Hughes DAJ, et al. 2011. The importance of vegetables in ensuring both food and nutritional security in attainment of the Millennium Development Goals. Food Security 3: 491–501.
Kumar BM, Nair PKR. 2004. The enigma of tropical homegardens. Agroforestry Systems 61: 135–152.
Leonti M, Nebel S, Rivera D, et al. 2006. Wild gathered food plants in the European Mediterranean: a comparative analysis. Economic Botany 60: 130–142.
Manyevere A, Muchaonyerwa P, Laker MC, et al. 2014. Farmers’ perspectives with regard to crop production: An analysis of Nkonkobe Municipality, South Africa. Journal of Agriculture Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics 115: 41-53.
Mapekula M, Chimonyo M, Mapiye C, et al. 2009. Milk production and calf rearing practices in the smallholder areas in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Tropical Animal Health and Production 41: 1475.
Maundu P, Achigan-Dako E, Morimoto Y. 2009. Biodiversity of African vegetables. In: Shackleton CM, Pasquini MW, Drescher AW (Eds.), African indigenous vegetables in urban agriculture. Earthscan, London, UK.
Menendez-Baceta G, Aceituno-Mata L, Tardío J, et al. 2012. Wild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay, Basque country). Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 59(7): 1329–1347.
Misra S, Maikhuri RK, Kala CP, et al. 2008. Wild leafy vegetables: a study of their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, India. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 4: 15.
Mthi S, Skenjana A, Fayemi PO. 2017. Characteristics of smallscale sheep production systems in some communal areas of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa. International Journal of Livestock Production 8: 199–206.
Mucina L, Rutherford MC. 2006. The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria, South Africa.
Ndhleve S, Nakin MDV, Longo-Mbenza B. 2017. Impacts of supplemental irrigation as a climate change adaptation strategy for maize production: a case of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Water SA 43(2): 222–228.
Ndhleve S, Musemwa L, Zhou L. 2013. How severe hunger is amongst rural households of the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development 4: 220-227.
Ngone AM, Ndam LM, Mih AM. 2016. Survey of wild vegetables in the Lebialem Highlands of south western Cameroon. Journal of Plant Sciences 4(6): 172-184.
Ntuli NR, Zobolo AM, Siebert SJ, et al. 2012. Traditional vegetables of northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: Has indigenous knowledge expanded the menu? African Journal of Agricultural Research 7(45): 6027-6034.
Ochieng J, Afari-Sefa V, Karanja D, et al. 2017. How promoting consumption of traditional African vegetables affects household nutrition security in Tanzania. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems 33(2): 1–11.
Ojelel S, Mucunguzi P, Katuura E, et al. 2019. Wild edible plants used by communities in and around selected forest reserves of Teso-Karamoja region, Uganda. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 15: 3.
Ojiewo CO, Tenkouano A, Hughes JA, et al. 2015. The role of vegetables and legumes in assuring food, nutrition and income security for vulnerable groups in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Medical and Health Policy 7(3): 187–210.
Orech FO, Aagaard-Hansen J, Friis H. 2007. Ethnoecology of traditional leafy vegetables of the Luo people of Bondo district, western Kenya. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 58(7): 522-530.
Romojaro A, Botella MA, Obon C, et al. 2013. Nutritional and antioxidant properties of wild edible plants and their use as potential ingredients in the modern diet. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 64: 944–952.
Rubatzky VE, Yamaguchi M. 1997. Importance of vegetables in human nutrition. In: Rubatzky VE, Yamaguchi M (Eds.), World vegetables. Chapman and Hall, New York, USA, pp. 34-56.
Rush E, Savila F, Jalili-Moghaddam S, et al. 2019. Vegetables: New Zealand children are not eating enough. Frontiers in Nutrition 5: 134.
Sansanelli S, Ferri M, Salinitro M, et al. 2017. Ethnobotanical survey of wild food plants traditionally collected and consumed in the Middle Agri Valley (Basilicata region, southern Italy). Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 13: 50.
Schreinemachers P, Simmons EB, Wopereis MCS. 2018. Tapping the economic and nutritional power of vegetables. Global Food Security 16: 36–45.
Semenya SS, Maroyi A. 2020. Assessment of useful alien plant species cultivated and managed in rural home gardens of Limpopo province, South Africa. Scientifica article ID 3561306.
Shin T, Fujikawa K, Moe AZ, et al. 2018. Traditional knowledge of wild edible plants with special emphasis on medicinal uses in Southern Shan State, Myanmar. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 14: 48.
Sundriyal M, Sundriyal RC. 2004. Wild edible plants of the Sikkim Himalaya: marketing, value addition and implications for management. Economic Botany 58(2): 300–315.
Tardío J, Pardo-de-Santayana M. 2008. Cultural importance indices: A comparative analysis based on the useful wild plants of southern Cantabria (Northern Spain). Economic Botany 62: 24–39.
Thakur D, Sharma A, Uniyal SK. 2017. Why they eat, what they eat: patterns of wild edible plants consumption in a tribal area of Western Himalaya. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 13: 70.
Thorn JPR, Thornton TF, Helfgott A, et al. 2020. Indigenous uses of wild and tended plant biodiversity maintain ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes of the Terai Plains of Nepal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 16: 33.
Towns AM, Shackleton C. 2018. Traditional, indigenous, or leafy? A definition, typology, and way forward for African vegetables. Economic Botany 72(4): 461–477.
Trotter RT, Logan MH. 1986. Informant census: A new approach for identifying potentially effective medicinal plants. In: Etkin LN (Ed.), Plants in indigenous medicine and diet. Redgrave, New York, USA, pp. 91-112.
Turner NJ, Luczaj LJ, Migliorini P, et al. 2011. Edible and tented wild plants, traditional ecological knowledge and agroecology. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 30: 198–225.
Turreira-García N, Vilkamaa AM, Byg A, et al. 2017. Diversity, knowledge, and use of leafy vegetables in northern Thailand: Maintenance and transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge during urbanization. Natural History Bulletin of the Siam Society 62: 85-105.
Ülger TG, Songur AN, Ç?rak O, et al. 2018. Role of vegetables in human nutrition and disease prevention. In: Asaduzzaman M, Asao T (Eds.), Vegetables: Importance of quality vegetables to human health. IntechOpen Ltd., London, UK, pp. 7–32.
Uprety Y, Poudel RC, Shrestha KK, et al. 2012. Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources in Nepal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 8: 16.
Welbaum GE. 2015. Vegetable production and practices. CABI, Wallingford, UK
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