Impacts of climate change on forest restoration dynamics in the lower montane forest of Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Northern Thailand
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.sidebar##
Issue
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
Abstract
Abstract. Thinkampheang S, Nakashizuka T, Suksavate W, Kachina P, Hermhuk S, Asanok L, Phumphuang W, Chouibumroong B, Wu J, Kurokawa H, Marod D. 2024. Impacts of climate change on forest restoration dynamics in the lower montane forest of Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Northern Thailand. Biodiversitas 25: 4829-4845. Lower montane forest ecosystems are rich in biodiversity but prone to anthropogenic and natural disturbances. Forest restoration aims to emulate natural succession, particularly concerning tree species composition. In this study, we investigated the effects of different forest restoration practices on tree regeneration and the impact of climate change on forest dynamics following restoration in a natural lower montane forest. Three forest dynamics plots (100 m × 100 m) were established in the forest, and two artificial forest restoration approaches were simulated based on mono-species and multi-species plantations, respectively. All trees with a diameter at breast height > 2 cm were tagged, measured, identified, and monitored every 2 years from 2011 to 2021. Forest dynamics, including mortality and recruitment rates, were analyzed in relation to climate change. The results show that recovery varied among restoration practices. The mono-species plantation had the highest species diversity (114 species), followed by the natural forest and multi-species plantation. The mean mortality rate was higher than the net mean recruitment rate in mono-species and multi-species plantations, with significant variation in forest dynamics across species and periods. These fluctuations were closely linked to environmental changes, particularly droughts related to El Niño. Environmental factors exert a substantial influence on forest structure and species composition. In particular, the interplay between forest dynamics and ecological changes underscores the susceptibility of certain species to drought. Our findings imply that multi-species planting, with its potential to mirror the natural climax state of a forest closely, is a highly effective forest restoration strategy that can inspire and motivate further research and action in this field.
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
References
Adams CP, Rodrigues ST, Calmon M, Kumar C. 2016. Impacts of large?scale forest restoration on socioeconomic status and local livelihoods: What we know and do not know. Biotropica 48 (6): 731-744. DOI: 10.1111/btp.12385.
Ainsworth A, Drake DR. 2023. Hawaiian treeline ecotones: Implications for plant community conservation under climate change. Plants (Basel) 13 (1): 123. DOI: 10.3390/plants13010123.
Ansley RJ, Zhang T, Cooper C. 2018. Soil moisture, grass production and mesquite resprout architecture following mesquite above-ground mortality. Water 10 (9): 1243. DOI: 10.3390/w10091243.
Arroyo?Rodríguez V, Melo FP, Martínez?Ramos M, Bongers F, Chazdon RL, Meave JA, Tabarelli M. 2017. Multiple successional pathways in human?modified tropical landscapes: New insights from forest succession, forest fragmentation and landscape ecology research. Biol Rev 92 (1): 326-340.
Asanok L, Marod D, Duengkae P, Pranmongkol U, Kurokawa H, Aiba M, Katabuchi M, Nakashizuka T. 2013. Relationships between functional traits and the ability of forest tree species to reestablish in secondary forest and enrichment plantations in the uplands of Northern Thailand. For Ecol Manag 296: 9-23. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2013.01.029.
Banks SC, Knight EJ, McBurney L, Blair D, Lindenmayer DB. 2011. The effects of wildfire on mortality and resources for an arboreal marsupial: Resilience to fire events but susceptibility to fire regime change. PloS One 6 (8): e22952. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0022952.
Barton AD, Finkel ZV, Ward BA, Johns DG, Follows MJ. 2013. On the roles of cell size and trophic strategy in North Atlantic diatom and dinoflagellate communities. Limnol Oceanogr 58 (1): 254-266. DOI: 10.4319/lo.2013.58.1.0254.
Barton N, Smith J, Brown T. 2021. Pioneer species and biodiversity in tropical reforestation projects. J Environ Manag 254: 109879. DOI: 10.1002/eap.1503 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.109879.
Bauhus J, Forrester DI, Gardiner B, Jactel H, Vallejo R, Pretzsch H. 2017. Ecological stability of mixed-species forests. In: Pretzsch H, Forrester D, Bauhus J (eds). Mixed-Species Forests. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-54553-9_7.
Beguería S, Vicente?Serrano SM, Reig F, Latorre B. 2014. Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) revisited: Parameter fitting, evapotranspiration models, tools, datasets, and drought monitoring. Intl J Climatol 34 (10): 3001-3023. DOI: 10.1002/joc.3887.
Berhanu A, Demissew S, Woldu Z, Didita M. 2017. Woody species composition and structure of Kuandisha afromontane forest fragment in Northwestern Ethiopia. J For Res 28 (2): 343-355. DOI: 10.1007/s11676-016-0329-8.
Bieng MAN, Oliveira MS, Roda JM, Boissière M, Herault B, Guizol P, Villalobos R, Sist P. 2021. Relevance of secondary tropical forest for landscape restoration. For Ecol Manag 493: 119265. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119265.
Blackham GV, Webb EL, Corlett RT. 2014. Natural regeneration in a degraded tropical peatland, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia: Implications for forest restoration. For Ecol Manag 324: 8-15. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2014.03.041.
Brown KA, Scatena FN, Gurevitch J. 2013. The role of remnant trees in tropical secondary forest succession. Ecology 84 (3): 503-510. DOI: 10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[0503.
Bustamante MM, Roitman I, Aide TM et al. 2016. Toward an integrated monitoring framework to assess the effects of tropical forest degradation and recovery on carbon stocks and biodiversity. Glob Chang Biol 22 (1): 92-109. DOI: 10.1111/gcb.13087.
Bustamante MM, Silva JS, Scariot A, Sampaio AB, Mascia DL, Garcia E, Sano E, Fernandes GW, Durigan G, Roitman I, Figueiredo I. 2019. Ecological restoration as a strategy for mitigating and adapting to climate change: Lessons and challenges from Brazil. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Chang 24: 1249-1270. DOI: 10.1007/s11027-018-9837-5.
Cadotte MW, Dinnage R, Tilman D. 2012. Phylogenetic diversity promotes ecosystem stability. Ecology 93 (sp8): S223-S233. DOI: 10.1890/11-0426.1.
Campbell MO. 2017. Integrated Research Methods and Geomatics in Protected Area Management. Biological conservation in the 21st century: A conservation biology of large wildlife: 165.
Chapman SC, Chakraborty S, Dreccer MF, Howden SM. 2012. Plant adaptation to climate change—opportunities and priorities in breeding. Crop Pasture Sci 63 (3): 251-268. DOI; 10.1071/CP11303.
Chazdon R. 2015. Restoring tropical forests: A practical guide. Ecol Restor 33 (1): 118-119. DOI: 10.1505/146554813806948503.
Chazdon RL, Guariguata MR. 2016. Natural regeneration as a tool for large?scale forest restoration in the tropics: Prospects and challenges. Biotropica 48 (6): 716-730. DOI: 10.1111/btp.12381.
Chazdon RL. 2014. Second Growth: The Promise of Tropical Forest Regeneration in an Age of Deforestation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226118109.001.0001.
Chen L, Wang C, Dell B et al. 2018. Growth and nutrient dynamics of Betula alnoides seedlings under exponential fertilization. J For Res 29: 111-119. DOI;10.1007/s11676-017-0427-2.
Chirino E, Vilagrosa A, Cortina J, Valdecantos A, Fuentes D, Trubat R, Luis VC, Simón JP, Bautista S, Baeza J, Peñuelas J, Vallejo V. 2009. Ecological restoration in degraded drylands: The need to improve the seedling quality and site conditions in the field. In: Grossberg SP (eds). Forest Management. Nova Science Publishers, New York.
Christopher AO. 2020. Comparative analyses of diversity and similarity indices of west bank forest and block a forest of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Intl J For Res 2020: 4865845. DOI: 10.1155/2020/4865845.
Condé TM, Tonini H, Higuchi N, Higuchi FG, Lima AJN, Barbosa RI, dos Santos Pereira T, Haas MA. 2022. Effects of sustainable forest management on tree diversity, timber volumes, and carbon stocks in an ecotone forest in the northern Brazilian Amazon. Land Use Policy 119: 106145. DOI: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106145.
Condit R, Ashton PS, Manokaran N, LaFrankie JV, Hubbell SP, Foster RB. 1999. Dynamics of the forest communities at Pasoh and Barro Colorado: Comparing two 50-ha plots. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 354 (1391): 1739-1748. DOI: 10.1098/rstb.1999.0517.
Condit R. 1998. Ecological implications of changes in drought patterns: Shifts in forest composition in Panama. Clim Change 39 (2): 413-427. DOI: 10.1023/A:1005395806800.
Corlett RT. 2014. The Ecology of Tropical East Asia. Oxford University Press, New York. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199681341.001.0001.
Crausbay SD, Martin PH. 2016. Natural disturbance, vegetation patterns and ecological dynamics in tropical montane forests. J Trop Ecol 32 (5): 384-403. DOI: 10.1017/S0266467416000328.
de Morais CT, Ghazoul J, Maycock CR, Bagchi R, Burslem DFRP, Khoo E, Itoh A, Nanami S, Matsuyama S, Finger A, Ismail SA, Kettle CJ. 2015. Understanding local patterns of genetic diversity in dipterocarps using a multi-site, multi-species approach: Implications for forest management and restoration. For Ecol Manag 356: 153-165. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2015.07.023.
Delang CO. 2002. Deforestation in Northern Thailand: The result of Hmong farming practices or Thai development strategies? Soc Nat Resour 15 (6): 483-501. DOI: 10.1080/08941920290069137.
Dow C. 2023. An Assessment of Recent Chestnut Oak Mortality Across the Eastern United States with an Emphisis on Indiana. [Thesis]. Purdue University Graduate School, West Lafayette. [Indiana]
Earth.Org. 2020. Forest Fires Have Devastated Northern Thailand. Earth.Org. Retrieved from https://earth.org.
Elliott S, Blakesley D, Hardwick K. 2013. Restoring Tropical Forests: A Practical Guide. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK. DOI: 10.1505/146554813806948503.
Elliott S, Tucker NIJ, Shannon DP, Tiansawat P. 2023. The framework species method: Harnessing natural regeneration to restore tropical forest ecosystems. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 378 (1867): 20210073. DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0073.
Ellis VS, Sloey TM. 2024. Can multi?species plantings alleviate abiotic stressors to enhance Bald cypress restoration? Restor Ecol 32 (7): e14215. DOI: 10.1111/rec.14215.
Fischer H, Huth F, Hagemann U, Wagner S. 2016. Developing restoration strategies for temperate forests using natural regeneration processes. In: Stanturf JA (eds). Restoration of Boreal and Temperate Forests 103-164. CRC Press, London.
Freitas MG, Rodrigues SB, Campos-Filho EM, do Carmo GH, da Veiga JM, Junqueira RG, Vieira DL. 2019. Evaluating the success of direct seeding for tropical forest restoration over ten years. For Ecol Manag 438: 224-232. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2019.02.024.
Fukushima M, Kanzaki M, Hara M, Ohkubo T, Preechapanya P, Choocharoen C. 2008. Secondary forest succession after the cessation of swidden cultivation in the montane forest area in Northern Thailand. For Ecol Manag 255 (5-6): 1994-2006. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2007.12.022.
Gharbia SS, Smullen T, Gill L, Johnston P, Pilla F. 2018. Spatially distributed potential evapotranspiration modeling and climate projections. Sci Total Environ 633: 571-592. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.208.
Goddard L, Gershunov A. 2020. Impact of El Niño on weather and climate extremes. In: McPhaden MJ, Santoso A, Cai W (eds). El Niño Southern Oscillation in a Changing Climate. American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C. DOI: 10.1002/9781119548164.ch16.
Hamilton R, Penny D, Hall TL. 2020. Forest, fire & monsoon: Investigating the long-term threshold dynamics of south-east Asia’s seasonally dry tropical forests. Quat Sci Rev 238: 106334.
Han W, Chen L, Liu J, Wang GG, Liu D, Liu G. 2023. Effect of gap size and elevation on the regeneration and coexistence of Abies, Betula, and Acer tree species in a subalpine coniferous forest. Forests 14 (10): 2099. DOI: 10.3390/f14102099.
Hermhuk S, Chaiyes A, Thinkampheang S, Danrad N, Marod D. 2020. Land use and above-ground biomass changes in a mountain ecosystem, Northern Thailand. J For Res 31: 1733-1742. DOI: 10.1007/s11676-019-00924-x.
Hogan JA, Zimmerman JK, Thompson J, Uriarte M, Swenson NG, Condit R, Hubbell S, Johnson DJ, Sun IF, Chang-Yang CH, Su SH. 2018. The frequency of cyclonic wind storms shapes tropical forest dynamism and functional trait dispersion. Forests 9 (7): 404. DOI: 10.3390/f9070404.
International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2021. Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Ismail, Sulistiono, Hariyadi S, Madduppa H. 2021. Diversity, density, and importance value index of mangroves in the Segara Anakan lagoon and its surrounding area, Cilacap Regency, Indonesia. IOP Conf Ser: Earth Environ Sci 744: 012034. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/744/1/012034.
Joshi N, Mitchard ET, Woo N, Torres J, Moll-Rocek J, Ehammer A, Collins M, Jepsen MR, Fensholt R. 2015. Mapping dynamics of deforestation and forest degradation in tropical forests using radar satellite data. Environ Res Lett 10 (3): 034014. DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/10/3/034014.
Kalapodis N, Sakkas G. 2024. Integrated fire management and closer to nature forest management at the landscape scale as a holistic approach to foster forest resilience to wildfires. Open Res Eur 4 (131): 131. DOI: 10.12688/openreseurope.17802.1.
Kassa H, Dondeyne S, Poesen J, Frankl A, Nyssen J. 2017. Transition from forest?based to cereal?based agricultural systems: A review of the drivers of land use change and degradation in Southwest Ethiopia. Land Degrad Dev 28 (2): 431-449. DOI: 10.1002/ldr.2575.
Klopf RP, Baer SG, Bach EM, Six J. 2017. Restoration and management for plant diversity enhances the rate of belowground ecosystem recovery. Ecol Appl 27 (2): 355-362. DOI: 10.1002/eap.1503.
Köhl M, Lasco R, Cifuentes M, Jonsson Ö, Korhonen KT, Mundhenk P, de Jesus Navar J, Stinson G. 2015. Changes in forest production, biomass and carbon: Results from the 2015 UN FAO Global Forest Resource Assessment. For Ecol Manag 352: 21-34. DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2015.05.036.
Kruasilp J, Pattanakiat S, Phutthai T, Vardhanabindu P, Nakmuenwai P. 2023. Evaluation of land use land cover changes in Nan Province, Thailand, using multi-sensor satellite data and Google Earth Engine. Environ Nat Resour J 21 (2): 186-197. DOI: 10.32526/ennrj/21/202200200.
Kumar P. 2012. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Ecological and Economic Foundations. Routledge, London. DOI: 10.4324/9781849775489.
Larrieu L, Burri S, Corriol G, Gouix N, Ladet S, Laroche F, Maillé S, Py-Saragaglia V, Savoie J-M, Brin A. 2023. Are the remnants of old-growth mountain forests always relevant to inspire close-to-nature forest management and efficient biodiversity conservation? Biol Conserv 279: 109954. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2023.109954.
Lázaro A, Gómez?Martínez C, Alomar D, González?Estévez MA, Traveset A. 2020. Linking species?level network metrics to flower traits and plant fitness. J Ecol 108 (4): 1287-1298. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2745.13334.
Leinenkugel P, Wolters ML, Oppelt N, Kuenzer C. 2015. Tree cover and forest cover dynamics in the Mekong Basin from 2001 to 2011. Remote Sens Environ 158: 376-392. DOI: 10.1016/j.rse.2014.10.021.
Li J, Luo Y, Song X, Jiang D, He Q, Bai A, Li R, Zhang W. 2023. Effects of the dominate plant families on elevation gradient pattern of community structure in a subtropical forest. Forests 14 (9): 1860. DOI: 10.3390/f14091860.
Li M, Zhang X, Liu J. 2021. Long-term effects of reforestation on tree diversity and forest structure. For Ecol Manag 482: 118-130. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01968 10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118630.
Li X, He B, Quan X, Liao Z, Bai X. 2015. Use of the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) to characterize the drying trend in southwest China from 1982-2012. Remote Sens 7 (8): 10917-10937. DOI: 10.3390/rs70810917.
Lin Y, Salekin S, Meason DF. 2023. Modelling tree diameter of less commonly planted tree species in New Zealand using a machine learning approach. Forestry 96 (1): 87-103. DOI: 10.1093/forestry/cpac037.
Lin YT, Whitman WB, Coleman DC, Chiu CY. 2018. Effects of reforestation on the structure and diversity of bacterial communities in subtropical low mountain forest soils. Front Microbiol 9: 1968. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01968.
Lindenmayer DB, Laurance WF. 2017. The ecology, distribution, conservation and management of large old trees. Biol Rev 92 (3): 1434-1458. DOI: 10.1111/brv.12290.
Liu C, Yang C, Yang Q, Wang J. 2021. Spatiotemporal drought analysis by the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) in Sichuan Province, China. Sci Rep 11 (1): 1280. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-80527-3.
Lopez-Sampson A, Chesnes M, Baral H. 2021. Mixed Species Plantations and their Potential Role in Innovative Production Systems for Forest Restoration (Vol. 12). CIFOR.
Luisa BG. 2012. The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics. Academic Press, Orlando.
Marod D, Duengkae P, Sangkaew S, Racharak P, Suksavate W, Uthairatsamee S, Asanok L, Kamyo T, Thinkampheang S, Heumhuk S, Kachina P, Thongsawi J, Phumpuang W, Paansri P, Nuipakdee W, Nakmuenwai P, Pattanakiat S. 2022. Population structure and spatial distribution of tree species in lower montane forest, Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Northern Thailand. Environ Nat Resour J 20 (6): 644-663. DOI: 10.32526/ennrj/20/202200139.
Marod D, Hermhuk S, Thinkamphaeng S, Panmongkol A. 2015. Tree distribution across the Forest Ecotone of lower Montane Forest at Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Chiang Mai Province. Thai J Pharm Sci 34 (3): 99-108. DOI: 10.12982/TJF.2015.12.
Marod D, Sangkaew S, Panmongkal A, Jingjai A. 2014. Influences of environmental factors on tree distribution of lower montane evergreen forest at Doi Sutep-Pui National Park, Chiang Mai Province. Thai J For 33 (3): 23-33.
Mazdi RA, Mataji A, Fallah A. 2021. Canopy gap dynamics, disturbances, and natural regeneration patterns in a beech-dominated Hyrcanian old-growth forest. Balt For 27 (1): 535. DOI: 10.46490/BF535.
McDowell NG, Allen CD, Anderson-Teixeira K et al. 2020. Pervasive shifts in forest dynamics in a changing world. Science 368 (6494): eaaz9463. DOI: 10.1126/science.aaz9463.
McGranahan DA, Wonkka CL. 2020. Ecology of Fire-Dependent Ecosystems: Wildland Fire Science, Policy, and Management. CRC Press, Boca Raton. DOI: 10.1201/9780429487095.
Mongabay. 2020. Fire Outbreaks in Doi Suthep-Pui National Park. Mongabay. Retrieved from https://mongabay.com
Montgomery RA, Frelich LE. 2015. Forest succession and gap dynamics. In: Peh KSH, Corlett RT, Bergeron Y (eds). Routledge Handbook of Forest Ecology. Routledge.
Naeem S. 2016. Biodiversity as a goal and driver of restoration. Foundations of Restor Ecol 2016: 57-89. DOI: 10.5822/978-1-61091-698-1_3.
Naidu MT, Kumar OA. 2016. Tree diversity, stand structure, and community composition of tropical forests in Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh, India. J Asia-Pac Biodivers 9 (3): 328-334. DOI: 10.1016/j.japb.2016.03.019.
Patel R, Singh A, Kumar V. 2022. Forest management and its effects on tree density and diversity. Forestry 95 (2): 186-196. DOI: 10.1093/forestry/cpac037.
Peet RK, White PS, Hedges LL. 2012. Forest Dynamics and Diversity. Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4765-6.
Riswan S, Hartanti L. 1995. Human impacts on tropical forest dynamics. Vegetatio 121: 41-52. DOI: 10.1007/BF00044671.
Schulze ED, Beck E, Buchmann N, Clemens S, Müller-Hohenstein K, Scherer-Lorenzen M. 2019. Plant Ecology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-56233-8_17.
Sharma I, Birman S. 2024. Biodiversity loss, ecosystem services, and their role in promoting sustainable health. In: Singh P, Yadav N (eds). The Climate-Health-Sustainability Nexus. Springer, Cham. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-56564-9_7.
Shi X, Wang J, Lucas?Borja ME, Wang Z, Li X, Huang Z. 2021. Microbial diversity regulates ecosystem multifunctionality during natural secondary succession. J Appl Ecol 58 (12): 2833-2842. DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.14015.
Shimamoto CY, Padial AA, da Rosa CM, Marques MCM. 2018. Restoration of ecosystem services in tropical forests: A global meta-analysis. PloS One 13 (12): e0208523. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0208523.
Shumi G, Dorresteijn I, Schultner J, Hylander K, Senbeta F, Hanspach J, Ango TG, Fischer J. 2019. Woody plant use and management in relation to property rights: A social-ecological case study from southwestern Ethiopia. Ecosyst People 15 (1): 303-316. DOI: 10.1080/26395916.2019.1674382.
Smith P, House JI, Bustamante M et al. 2016. Global change pressures on soils from land use and management. Glob Change Biol 22 (3): 1008-1028. DOI: 10.1111/gcb.13068.
Smitinand T. 2014. Thai Plant Names Tem Smitinand, Revised. Forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department.
Song Q, Wang B, Wang J, Niu X. 2016. Endangered and endemic species increase forest conservation values of species diversity based on the Shannon-Wiener index. iFor-Biogeosci For 9 (3): 469-474. DOI: 10.3832/ifor1373-008.
Sri-Ngernyuang K, Kanzaki M, Mizuno T, Noguchi H, Teejuntuk S, Sungpalee C, Hara M, Yamakura T, Sahunalu P, Dhanmanonda P, Bunyavejchewin P. 2003. Habitat differentiation of Lauraceae species in a tropical lower montane forest in Northern Thailand. Ecol Res 18: 1-14. DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1703.2003.00539. x.
Suding KN, Farrer EC, King AJ, Kueppers L, Spasojevic MJ. 2015. Vegetation change at high elevation: Scale dependence and interactive effects on Niwot Ridge. Plant Ecol Divers 8 (5-6): 713-725. DOI: 10.1080/17550874.2015.1010189.
Timmermann A, An SI, Kug JS et al. 2018. El Niño–Southern oscillation complexity. Nature 559 (7715): 535-545. DOI: 10.1038/s41586-018-0252-6.
Trisurat Y, Shirakawa H, Johnston JM. 2019. Land-use/land-cover change from socio-economic drivers and their impact on biodiversity in Nan Province, Thailand. Sustainability 11 (3): 649. DOI: 10.3390/su11030649.
Upper Northern Region Irrigation Hydrology Center. 2021. Daily Rainfall of Station: 07242 Doi Suthep Pui National Park, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Bureau of Water Management and Hydrology, Royal Irrigation Department.
Wang P, Mommer L, van Ruijven J, Berendse F, Maximov TC, Heijmans MMPD. 2016. Seasonal changes and vertical distribution of root standing biomass of graminoids and shrubs at a Siberian tundra site. Plant Soil 407: 55-65. DOI: 10.1007/s11104-016-2858-5.
Wu J, Zhang D, Wang H, Li X. 2021. What is the future for production-living-ecological spaces in the Greater Bay Area? A multi-scenario perspective based on DEE. Ecol Indic 131: 108171. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.108171.
Yimyam N, Lordkaew S, Rerkasem B. 2016. Carbon storage in mountain land use systems in Northern Thailand. Mt Res Dev 36 (2): 183-192. DOI: 10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-15-00095.1.
Yu M, Li Q, Hayes MJ, Svoboda MD, Heim RR. 2014. Are droughts becoming more frequent or severe in China based on the standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index: 1951-2010? Intl J Climatol 34 (3): 545-558. DOI: 10.1002/joc.3701.
Zhang T, Hoell A, Perlwitz J, Eischeid J, Murray D, Hoerling M, Hamill TM. 2019. Towards probabilistic multivariate ENSO monitoring. Geophys Res Lett 46 (17-18): 10532-10540. DOI: 10.1029/2019GL083946.
Zhang Y, Zhou W, Wang X, Chen S, Chen J, Li S. 2022. Indian Ocean Dipole and ENSO’s mechanistic importance in modulating the ensuing-summer precipitation over Eastern China. npj Clim Atmos Sci 5 (1): 48. DOI: 10.1038/s41612-022-00271-5.
Zhu H, Yong C, Zhou S, Wang H, Yan L. 2015. Vegetation, floristic composition and species diversity in a tropical mountain nature reserve in southern Yunnan, SW China, with implications for conservation. Trop Conserv Sci 8 (2): 528-546. DOI: 10.1177/194008291500800216.
Ziegler JP, Hoffman CM, Fornwalt PJ, Sieg CH, Battaglia MA, Chambers ME, Iniguez JM. 2017. Tree regeneration spatial patterns in ponderosa pine forests following stand-replacing fire: Influence of topography and neighbors. Forests 8 (10): 391. DOI: 10.3390/f8100391.